Bøger i Chemists and Chemistry serien

Presents the history of discovery of the rare earth elements. This title describes how the isolation and characterization of each rare earth element confronted chemists with unparalleled difficulties for over 150 years. It presents chapters on both the industrial uses of the rare earths and their application to pharmacology and medicine.

1 /Theoretical Background.- 1.1. Government-Binding Theory.- 1.1.1. X-Bar Theory.- 1.1.2. ?-Theory.- 1.1.3. Case Theory.- 1.1.4. Binding Theory.- 1.1.5. Control Theory.- 1.1.6. Bounding Theory.- 1.1.6.1. Bounding Nodes.- 1.1.6.2. Barriers.- 1.1.7. Government Theory.- 1.1.7.1. Disjunctive ECP.- 1.1.7.2. Conjunctive ECP.- 1.2. Parasitic Gaps.- Notes.- 2 / Universal Licensing.- 2.0. Introduction.- 2.1. Licensing.- 2.1.1. Full Interpretation.- 2.1.2. Universal Licensing.- 2.1.3. Full Interpretation at D-Structure.- 2.2. Licensing at D-Structure.- 2.2.1. Predication.- 2.2.1.1. Null Predicates.- 2.2.1.2. Adjunct Null Operators.- 2.2.2. Quantification.- 2.2.2.1. Operators in [Spec, CP].- 2.2.2.2. Base-generated Wh-constructions.- 2.2.2.3. Resumptive Pronouns within Questions and Relatives.- 2.2.2.4. Types of Resumptive Pronouns and the Wh/ Relative Asymmetry.- 2.2.2.4.1. Vata.- 2.2.2.4.2. Modern Hebrew.- 2.2.2.4.3. Standard Arabic.- 2.2.2.4.4. Hausa.- 2.3. Licensing at S-Structure: Null Operators.- 2.3.1. Parasitic Gaps.- 2.3.2. Null Operator Constructions in English and French.- 2.3.3. Null Topics.- 2.4. Universal Licensing and Parasitic Gaps.- 2.5. Summary.- Notes.- 3 / Double Dont Constructions.- 3.0. Introduction.- 3.1. Genitival Relatives.- 3.1.1. Dont as a Case-Marked C0.- 3.1.2. Dont Relatives and the Subject Condition.- 3.2. Non-Movement Relatives With Dont.- 3.3. Double Constructions with Dont.- 3.3.1. The Problem.- 3.3.2. Adnominal Complements and the Projection Principle.- 3.4. Identifying the Gaps.- 3.4.1. Adnominal Gaps Are Not Anaphoric.- 3.4.2. pro or Variable?.- 3.4.2.1. pro in French: Orphan Prepositions.- 3.4.2.2. Adnominal Gaps Are Not pro.- 3.4.2.3. Adnominal Gaps Are Variables.- 3.4.3. Problems With Multiple Extraction.- 3.5. Summary.- Notes.- 4/Null Operators In DPs.- 4.0. Introduction.- 4.1. Null Operators in Noun Phrases at S-Structure.- 4.1.1. DDCs Are Parasitic Gap Constructions.- 4.1.1.1. Syntactic A?-Movement.- 4.1.1.2. C-command from the Binder.- 4.1.1.3. Anti-c-command and Locality.- 4.1.2. [Spec, CP) as an A?-Position.- 4.2. Null Operators in Noun Phrases at D-Structure.- 4.2.1. The Thematic Structure of Nominals.- 4.2.2. Arguments and Adjuncts in DDCs.- 4.2.3. Relational Nouns and Possessor Arguments.- 4.2.3.1. Generic Contexts.- 4.2.3.2. Determiner Types.- 4.3. Easy-Type Constructions in Noun Phrases: Inalienable Possession.- 4.4. Summary.- Notes.- 5 / Locality In Double Dont Constructions.- 5.0. Introduction.- 5.1. Two Chain Approaches to External Locality.- 5.1.1. Chain Composition.- 5.1.2. Chain Formation.- 5.2. DDCs and Chain Composition.- 5.2.1. Adnominal Gaps Within PPs.- 5.2.2. Adjunct Clauses.- 5.2.3. Adnominal PGs in Embedded Clauses.- 5.3. Deriving the Properties of PG Constructions.- Notes.- References.- Index Of Names.- Index Of Subjects.

The editors wish to thank the European Science Foundation for its support of the programme on the Evolution of Chemistry in Europe, 1789-1939, as well as for sponsoring the publication of this volume. Through the subdivision of this initiative that deals specifically with chemical industry it has been possible for historians of science, technology, business and economics to share often widely differing viewpoints and develop consensus across disciplinary and cultural boundaries. The contents of this volume are based on the third of three workshops that have considered the emergence of the modern European chemical industry prior to 1939, the first held in Liege (1994), the second in Maastricht (1995), and the third in Strasbourg (1996). All contributors and participants are thanked for their participation in often lively and informative debates. The generous hospitality of the European Science Foundation and its staff in Strasbourg is gratefully acknowledged. Introduction Emerging chemical knowledge and the development of chemical industry, and particularly the interaction between them, offer rich fields of study for the historian. This is reflected in the contents of the three workshops dealing with the emergence of chemical industry held under the aegis of the European Science Foundation's Evolution of Chemistry in Europe, 1789-1939, programme. The first workshop focused mainly on science for industry, 1789- 1850, and the second on the two-way traffic between science and industry, 1850-1914. The third workshop, dealing with the period 1900-1939, covers similar issues, but within different, and wider, contexts.

One hundred years ago, in September 1888, Professor Lewis Mills Norton (1855-1893) of the Chemistry Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology introduced to the curriculum a course on industrial chemical practice. This was the first structured course in chemical engineer- ing taught in a University. Ten years later, Norton's successor Frank H. Thorpe published the first textbook in chemical engineering, entitled "e;Outlines of Industrial Chemistry."e; Over the years, chemical engineering developed from a simple industrial chemical analysis of processes into a mature field. The volume presented here includes most of the commissioned and contributed papers presented at the American Chemical Society Symposium celebrating the centenary of chemical engineering. The contributions are presented in a logical way, starting first with the history of chemical engineering, followed by analyses of various fields of chemical engineering and concluding with the history of various U.S. and European Departments of Chemical Engineering. I wish to thank the authors of the contributions/chapters of this volume for their enthusiastic response to my idea of publishing this volume and Dr. Gianni Astarita of the University of Naples, Italy, for his encouragement during the initial stages of this project.

We meet in Thomas Beddoes an able chemist, engaged in a field where impor­ tant new discoveries were being made; a good doctor eager to fmd experi­ mentally soun. d ways of healing and to make known the principles of maintaining good health; a vigorous, independent man sharing the hope which the ideas of the French Revolution gave so many 9f his contemporaries. In his life he was a controversial figure and judgement and detached appreciation of his work was often made impossible by anger at his 'revolutionary' political views. It becomes evident that where Beddoes was held in esteem and where he had influence it was not for particular activities but for what he was 'in the round'. With due respect - and with gratitude - to specialist accounts of his achievements as a chemist and of his endeavours to fmd a cure for pulmonary consumption and his efforts to bring about an understanding of the importance of preventive medicine, I have tried in this account to 'see him whole'. Historians of chemistry and of medicine; educationalists; and those concerned with 'women's studies' will each continue to find particular episodes or parts of Beddoes' life of special interest. At the same time I hope this, the first attempt at a biography - for J. E. Stock's 1811 account is truly named "Memoirs" - will add to our understanding of his varied activities.

The Industrial Revolution boosted activities such as soap-making, glassmaking and textiles production, which required increasing quantities of chemical products. By 1900, Britain was producing one quarter of the world's output with an annual production approaching one million tons.

Recognizing this fact, the Division of the History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society organized and held a very successful symposium on the history of chemical instrumentation during the Washington, D.C.

With due respect - and with gratitude - to specialist accounts of his achievements as a chemist and of his endeavours to fmd a cure for pulmonary consumption and his efforts to bring about an understanding of the importance of preventive medicine, I have tried in this account to 'see him whole'.

Heinrich Caro (1834-1910) was the inventor of new chemical processes that in the two decades commencing in 1869 enabled BASF of Ludwigshafen, Germany, to take first place among manufacturers of synthetic dyestuffs.

In the twentieth century, dyes, pharmaceuticals, photographic products, explosives, insecticides, fertilizers, synthetic rubber, fuels, and fibers, plastics, and other products have flowed out of the chemical industry and into the consumer economies, war machines, farms, and medical practices of industrial societies.

3. 4. 2. "SOMETHING ON CERIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3. 4. 3. THE DISCOVERY OF LANTHANUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3. 4. 4. THE DISCOVERY OF DIDYMIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3. 4. 5. THE NAME DIDYMIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3. 4. 6. THE DISCOVERY OF TERBIUM AND ERBIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3. 5. The Cork Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3. 6. Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3. 7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Chapter 4. THE 50 YEARS FOLLOWING MOSANDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 F. SZABADVARY and C. EVANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4. 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4. 2. The Terbium Dispute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4. 3. Samarium and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4. 4. The Division of Erbium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4. 5. Separating the Twins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4. 6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4. 7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Chapter 5. ELEMENTS NO. 70, 71 AND 72: DISCOVERIES AND CONTROVERSIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 HELGE KRAGH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5. 1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5. 2. The ytterbium earths unti11905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5. 3. Auer von Wel

Analyses the development of the chemical industry during the Second Industrial Revolution in a large number of European countries. This book is intended for historians of technology and chemistry, social historians, economic and business historians, and historians of the environment.

In the twentieth century, dyes, pharmaceuticals, photographic products, explosives, insecticides, fertilizers, synthetic rubber, fuels, and fibers, plastics, and other products have flowed out of the chemical industry and into the consumer economies, war machines, farms, and medical practices of industrial societies.

Heinrich Caro (1834-1910) was the inventor of new chemical processes that in the two decades commencing in 1869 enabled BASF of Ludwigshafen, Germany, to take first place among manufacturers of synthetic dyestuffs.

Recognizing this fact, the Division of the History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society organized and held a very successful symposium on the history of chemical instrumentation during the Washington, D.C.

A thorough history. Lactic acid's chemistry has posed problems that required the large-scale preparation of the acid for study; its manufacture is a complicated process involving many subdisciplines of the science of chemistry; its use encompasses many fields of industrial activity and important asp

Europe is the cradle of the modem international chemical industry. From the middle of the nineteenth century until the outbreak of World War I, the European chemical industry influenced not only the production and control of science and technology, but also made significant contributions towards economic development, as well as bringing about profound changes in working and living enviromnents. It is a highly complex heritage, both rich and threatening, that calls for close scrutinity. Fortunately, a unique opportunity to explore the historical development of the European chemical industry from a variety of novel standpoints, was made possible during 1993 as part of the European Science Foundation (ESF) programme called ''The Evolution of Chemistry in Europe, 1789-1939.'' This process of exploration has taken place through three workshops, each dealing with different time periods. The workshop concerned with the period 1850-1914, which corresponds roughly to the so-called Second Industrial Revolution, was held in Maastricht, The Netherlands, on 23-25 March 1995. This volume is the outcome of that workshop. The other workshops dealing with European chemical industry were held in Liege in 1994, covering the First Industrial Revolution period, 1789-1850, and Strasbourg in 1996, covering the period between the two World Wars.

The word Polyethylene was probably first pronounced in a lecture which M. P. E. Berthelot delivered on April ,27, 1863 to the Chemical Society in Paris, reporting on the "polymerization" of various simple organic compounds (1). Much later this work appeared twice in the literature before the classical ICI breakthrough in the 1930's which is so colorfully described in Ballard's lecture. Once it came up at the end of the last century when H. von Pechmann obtained "a white flocculant material" from the decomposition of diazomethane which, one year later, was termed to be "polymethylene" - (CH ) - from E. Bamberger 2 and F. Tschiemer (1). At that time the investigators were disappointed about this product because it was not what they had expected to find in their experiments. As a result any further work was discontinued. The second time that the word polyethylene appeared in the literature to describe a "white solid powder" was in 1930 when C. S. Marvel and M. E. P. Friedericks (2) attempted to prepare alkylated As compounds in which all five valencies were covalently bonded to five monovalent-aTkyl groups. They reacted Tetra-ethyl-arsenium bromide with butyllithium and expected to get tetra ethyl butyl arsenium. Instead they obtained LiBr + AsEt3 + gaseous products. Delicate and somewhat time-consuming analysis gave a surprising result: ethane and C 's were there in the 4 expected quantities but ethylene was missing - or almost missing - in the gas mixture.

Although numerous attempts have been made in the past one hundred years to identify the main reasons for the neglect and the indifference which surrounded the molecular hypothesis, very little effort has been devoted to showing how historical circumstances and Avogadro's own personality hindered the acceptance of the concepts he had proposed.

On August 18, 1977 a special 'Soddy Session' was held at the Fifteenth International Congress of the History of Science, Edinburgh, Scotland, with Dr. Thaddeus J. Trenn as Symposium Chairman. This session was organized to commemorate the lOOth anniversary of the birth of Fre­ derick Soddy (born September 2, 1877, Eastbourne, England; died September 22, 1956, Brighton, England), who was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 'for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes'. Soddy taught and/or carried out research at Oxford University (where he was Lee's Professor of Chemistry), McGill University (where he and Sir Ernest Rutherford proposed the disintegration theory of radioactivity), University College, London (where he and Sir William Ramsay demonstrated natural transmuta­ tion), Glasgow University (where he formulated his displacement law and concept of isotopes), llnd Aberdeen University. In addition to his contributions to radiochemistry, he proposed a number of controversial economic, social, and political theories. The present volume contains the eight lectures presented at the symposium, two additional papers written especially for this volume (Kauffman, Chapter 4 and Krivomazov, Chapter 6), a paper on Soddy's economic thought (Daly, Chapter 11), and three selections from Soddy's works. Furthermore, an introductory account of Soddy's life and work by Thaddeus J. Trenn as well as a Soddy chronology, and name and subject indexes compiled by the editor are provided.

This study is an outgrowth of our interest in the history of modern chemistry. The paucity of reliable, quantitative knowledge about past science was brought home forcibly to us when we undertook a research seminar in the comparative history of modern chemistry in Britain, Germany, and the United States.