Filosofi: logik

Studienarbeit aus dem Jahr 2017 im Fachbereich Philosophie - Sonstiges, Note: 1.0, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Veranstaltung: Intentionalität und mentale Repräsentation, Sprache: Deutsch, Abstract: Wir sind in der Lage, komplizierte Abfolgen von Handlungen zu planen, rationale Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen und lösen oftmals auf unvorhersehbare Art und Weise die unterschiedlichsten Probleme. Für gewöhnlich erklären wir all das mit dem Vorhandensein von inneren Vorgängen, in denen wir uns mit unserer Umwelt in Beziehung setzen: dem Denken. Es ist eine große, längst nicht abgeschlossene Herausforderung für die Naturwissenschaften, menschliches Denken zu erklären. Wie können physische Wesen auf so vielfältige Art und Weise planen, schlussfolgern und darauf aufbauendhandeln?Die Language of Thought Hypothese (LOTH) ist ein Ansatz, diese Fragen zu beantworten. Ihr zufolge müssen die physischen Prozesse, die unser Denken ausmachen, in einer mentalen Sprache ablaufen, um sowohl derart vielfältig als auch kausal wirksam zu sein.Diesem Ansatz zufolge kann ein Gedanke nur so etwas wie ein Satz in unserem Gehirn sein, der nach bestimmten grammatikalischen Regeln aus Symbolen zusammengesetzt ist. Denken würde dann einen Mechanismus beinhalten, der solche Sätze verarbeitet und sie mit unserem motorischen und verbalen Verhalten verschaltet.Mit dem Konnektionismus hat sich in den letzten vier Jahrzehnten eine Bestrebung in den Kognitionswissenschaften etabliert, welche versucht die intellektuellen Fähigkeiten des Menschen mithilfe künstlicher Netzwerke zu modellieren. Diese ahmen die Funktionsweise der neuronalen Netze im menschlichen Gehirn nach. Jerry Fodor, der bedeutendste Vertreter der LOTH, übt Kritik an konnektionistischen Modellen. Ihm zufolge seien sie nicht in der Lage bestimmte Eigenschaften menschlichen Denkens zu erklären und damit die Anforderungen der LOTH an eine Theorie der Kognition zu erfüllen. Währenddessen meinen viele Konnektionisten bestimmte Modelle konstruiert zu haben, die wichtige Aspekte menschlichen Denkens aufweisen, ohne einer Language of Thought zu bedürfen.Murat Aydede fasst dieses angespannte Verhältnis anders auf. Er plädiert für die Auffassung, dass auch die besagten konnektionistischen Modelle eine Language of Thought (LOT) voraussetzen. Wie sollte man das Verhältnis zwischen der Language of Thought Hypothese und dem Konnektionismus nun auslegen? Ich argumentiere dafür, den Konnektionismus als einen neuen Ansatz in den Kognitionswissenschaften aufzufassen, der den Klassizismus herausfordert, dabei aber immer noch in der Tradition der LOTH steht.

Aristotle's Topics is a handbook for dialectic, i.e. the exercise for philosophical debates between a questioner and a respondent. Alexander takes the Topics as a sort of handbook teaching how to defend and how attack any philosophical claim against philosophical adversaries. In book 3, Aristotle develops strategies for arguing about comparative claims, in which properties are said to belong to subjects to a greater, lesser, or equal degree. Aristotle illustrates the different argumentative patterns that can be used to establish or refute a comparative claim through one single example: whether something is more or less or equally to be chosen or to be avoided than something else. In his commentary on Topics 3, here translated for the first time into English, Alexander of Aphrodisias spells out Aristotle's text by referring to issues and examples from debates with other philosophical school (especially: the Stoics) of his time. The commentary provides new evidence for Alexander's views on the logic of comparison and is a relatively neglected source for Peripatetic ethics in late antiquity. This volume will be valuable reading for students of Aristotle and of the developments of Peripatetic logic and ethics in late antiquity.

""This two-part book tells two entirely different but interlocking stories of several modern characters in modern situations (Hollywood, New York, Dublin, Greece, London) with two sets of couples and two sets of twins, all of whose reliability is questionable when faced with attempts to tell their autobiographies. The book transgresses many conventional boundaries usually found in even the most "post-modern" fiction. It will remind some readers of the works of Graham Greene and John le Carré, as well as a touch here and there of Evelyn Waugh and a hint of P.G. Wodehouse. Esposito's finely drawn characters populate a series of often very funny situations, swerving from the deadly serious to the absurd in unorthodox fashion."" - Brewster Chamberlin, author of Radovic's Dilemma.In 600 BC the Cretan philosopher Epimenides of Knossos asserted that "All Cretans are liars." If he was telling the truth, he was lying; if he was lying, he was telling the truth. Epimenides was asking us to accept two contradictory statements as simultaneously valid. More Than Two tries to prove his case.As René Magritte might have said, "Ceci n'est pas un roman." But is it a novel? Perhaps, in the light of the two protagonists' fate, it is un grec. It tests, in two contradictory stories, the truth of fiction. It questions the nature of authenticity. It provokes issues such as authorial presence and the reliability of narrative. It explores the relationship between fact and fiction, and between memory and imagination. It can be read as a parody or as an authentic narrative, depending upon the reader's starting point. It invites the reader into self-reflection as a form of confession. It is a palindrome.The author is a Cretan. James Esposito did not write this book.

The power of Tarot goes beyond simple "fortune telling."The true power of Tarot is in its ability to speak to us of ourselves as we trulyare. Every Archetype of tarot is a piece of the puzzleof who we are. To put this puzzle together isto see a complete picture of ourselves, both asindividuals and as a species.Tarot offers a blueprint of our soul and a road mapof our spiritual journey. To understand who weare on deep levels beyond the limits of logicis to be on a path to Enlightenment.What's Tarot Got To Do With It?The Fool's Path To Enlightenment illuminates thispath. Seeing the path as it is for what it is puts us on the wayto an Enlightened Life.

Ludwig Wittgenstein's On Certainty explores a myriad of new and important ideas regarding our notions of belief, knowledge, skepticism, and certainty. During the course of his exploration, Wittgenstein makes a fascinating new discovery about certitude, namely, that it is categorically distinct from knowledge. As his investigation advances, he recognizes that certainty must be non-propositional and non-ratiocinated; borne out not in the things we say, but in our actions, our deeds. Many philosophers working outside of epistemology recognized Wittgensteins insights and determined that his works abrupt end might serve as an excellent launching point for still further philosophical expeditions. In Exploring Certainty: Wittgenstein and Wide Fields of Thought, Robert Greenleaf Brice surveys some of this rich topography. Wittgensteins writings serve as a point of departure for Brices own ideas about certainty. He shows how Wittgensteins rough and unpolished notion of certitude might be smoothed out and refined in a way to benefit studies of morality, aesthetics, cognitive science, philosophy of mathematics. Brices work opens new avenues of thought for scholars and students of the Wittgensteinian tradition, while introducing original philosophies concerning issues central to human knowledge and cognition.

This edited volume collects essays on the four-valued logic known as Belnap-Dunn logic, or first-degree entailment logic (FDE). It also looks at various formal systems closely related to it. These include the strong Kleene logic and the Logic of Paradox. Inside, readers will find reprints of seminal papers written by the fathers of the field: Nuel Belnap and Michael Dunn. In addition, the collection also features a well-known but previously unpublished manuscript of Dunn, an interview with Belnap, and a new essay by Dunn.Besides the original, monumental papers, the book also includes research by leading scholars. They consider the extraordinary importance of Belnap-Dunn logic from several perspectives. They look at how, philosophically, it has served as a basic system of inconsistency-tolerant reasoning, as the core of underlying logics for theories based on dialetheism, and, more recently, for theories based on Buddhist philosophy. Coverage also explores its contributions tocomputer science, such as knowledge representation and information processing.This mix of seminal papers and insightful analysis by top scholars offers readers a comprehensive outlook on Belnap-Dunn logic and its related expansions, which have been agenda setting for the debate on philosophical logic as well as philosophy of logic. The book will also enhance further discussion on the philosophical issues related to nonclassical logics in general.

Simply stated, this book bridges the gap between statistics and philosophy. It does this by delineating the conceptual cores of various statistical methodologies (Bayesian/frequentist statistics, model selection, machine learning, causal inference etc.) and drawing out their philosophical implications.

This volume brings together new research on the topic of epistemic closure from both leading philosophers and emerging voices in epistemology. It connects epistemic closure principles to related themes in epistemology such as scepticism, dogmatism, evidentialism, epistemic logic, and modal epistemology.Epistemic closure is of central importance to contemporary epistemology, so much so that no epistemology is complete without an answer to the question of where it stands on the issue. The chapters in this book touch on the central themes of closure and transmission and argue for and against different closure and transmission principles. The contributors address issues such as whether knowledge and justification are closed under deductive entailment; whether scepticism can be properly contained by restricting closure principles; whether justification for a set of premises can fail to transmit across inference to a conclusion; Moore's Paradox; and which theories of knowledge-contextualism, contrastivism, or relevant alternatives epistemology-emerge from denying closure.New Perspectives on Epistemic Closure will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working in epistemology.

Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in evolutionary debunking arguments directed against certain types of belief, particularly moral and religious beliefs. According to those arguments, the evolutionary origins of the cognitive mechanisms that produce the targeted beliefs render these beliefs epistemically unjustified. The reason is that natural selection cares for reproduction and survival rather than truth, and false beliefs can in principle be as evolutionarily advantageous as true beliefs. The present volume brings together fourteen essays that examine evolutionary debunking arguments not only in ethics and philosophy of religion, but also in philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, and epistemology. The essays move forward research on those arguments by shedding fresh light on old problems and proposing new lines of inquiry. The book will appeal to scholars and graduate students interested in the possible skeptical implications of evolutionary theory in any of the above domains.

Informed by co-author Debby Hutchins' extensive teaching experience and research on logic education, The Art of Reasoning is the most effective text for teaching logic today. The Fifth Edition features a new chapter on cognitive biases.

Diese Reihe bietet ein Forum fur innovative Beitrage zur Logik und zur modernen Sprachphilosophie ebenso wie fur Studien zur analytischen Metaphysik.

The first book-length study to address issues in modal logic at the eve of the Renaissance, this monograph provides important new insights into the way the debates on modal logic during the post-medieval period tied in with the so-called Wegestreit, the divide between the via antiqua and via moderna that dominated the discourse on logic during the 15th and early 16th centuries. The focus of the book is on the logic and philosophy of language of John Fabri of Valenciennes (fl. c. 1500), one of the last exponents of the terminist approach to logic that was bitterly criticized by the humanist movement. By means of a careful reconstruction of Fabri¿s text, the book argues that Fabri's modal logic ultimately goes back to the work of John Buridan, and represents the same approach to the topic as the modal logics that were developed by adherents of the via moderna in Paris. This has significant implications for the historiography of post-medieval philosophy. Fabri was active in Louvain, which until the late 16th century was the most important intellectual center in the Low Countries. According to a long-standing tradition in the scholarship, Louvain was one of the few bulwarks of via antiqua logic on the map of post-medieval Europe. The book argues that this thesis is at least in part a scholarly fiction, and thus in need of revision. By shedding light on an author whose thought has thus far remained entirely unstudied, it also constitutes a valuable step towards a history of philosophy without any gaps. The book is aimed at graduate students and researchers in the history of logic and philosophy, but will also be of interest to intellectual historians, historians of ideas, and to any contemporary modal logician who is interested in the historical roots of their discipline.

C. L. (Charles Leonard) Hamblin (1922-1985) received his undergraduate degree in philosophy, mathematics, and physics and an M.A. in philosophy at Monash University. He received a Ph.D. at the London School of Economics in language and information theory. From 1955 to 1985 he was Lecturer then Professor in the School of Philosophy of the University of New South Wales, making lasting contributions to bothphilosophy and computer science. Hamblin's Fallacies "e;was the first full-length scholarly book on fallacies since the Middle Ages, and arguably since Aristotle's Sophistical Refutations itself."e; Jim Mackenzie, Informal Logic"e;As important as it is as a historical study, Hamblin's Fallacies is even more important today for its signal contribution to our understandingand analysis of informal arguments. . . . with its extensive historical overview and sharp analyses of the logical fallacies."e; John Plecnik and John HoaglundThe Advanced Reasoning Forum is pleased to make available this reproduction of the 1970 text with a preface from 1986 in its Classic Reprints series.

Written by internationally renowned author Stella Cottrell, this is an essential resource for students looking to refine their thinking, reading and writing skills.

We cannot continue to educate our children for a world that no longer exists. A glance at any employment website shows a list of job titles unheard of 20 years ago. All of them require some form of lateral thinking as the focus has shifted from mechanical processes to creative solutions. We need to train our brains to break free of habitual, conditioned thought patterns. The puzzles in this book will gradually guide the reader to start seeing information as something to be processed rather than memorized. As we learn to evaluate the facts given critically, we can work out how to fit them together in unexpected ways to achieve different outcomes. We can also improve our ability to communicate our ideas while considering other points of view. Paul D. Pantera is an entrepreneur and US Navy Sailor Senior Enlisted Leader who has trained hundreds of Junior Sailors over his 16+ year career. His goal is to provide parents, educators, and young adults with the tools to bridge the gap between their children's education and the skills they require in the real world. One of the biggest challenges is problem-solving abilities. He has put together a practical approach to create a basic system to develop a different way of thinking. The Pantheria Life Tools are games, journals, and books with the simple goal of building productive citizens.