Filosofi: logik

With our American Philosophy and Religion series, Applewood reissues many primary sources published throughout American history. Through these books, scholars, interpreters, students, and non-academics alike can see the thoughts and beliefs of Americans who came before us.

With our American Philosophy and Religion series, Applewood reissues many primary sources published throughout American history. Through these books, scholars, interpreters, students, and non-academics alike can see the thoughts and beliefs of Americans who came before us.

Mathematical Problems from Applied Logic I presents chapters from selected, world renowned, logicians. Important topics of logic are discussed from the point of view of their further development in light of requirements arising from their successful application in areas such as Computer Science and AI language. An overview of the current state as well as open problems and perspectives are clarified in such fields as non-standard inferences in description logics, logic of provability, logical dynamics and computability theory. The book contains interesting contributions concerning the role of logic today, including some unexpected aspects of contemporary logic and the application of logic. This should be of interest to logicians and mathematicians in general.Contributors include: Franz Baader (Germany) and Ralf Küsters (Germany), Lev Beklemishev (The Netherlands/Russia) and Albert Visser (The Netherlands), Johan van Benthem (The Netherlands/USA), S Barry Cooper (UK), John N Crossley (Australia), Wilfrid A Hodges (UK), and Lawrence S Moss (USA).

This book provides detailed treatment of topics in traditional logic: the theory of terms; the theory of definition; the informal fallacies; and division and classification. Aristotelian Logic teaches techniques for solving semantic problems - problems caused by confusion over terminology. It teaches the theory of definition - the different kinds of definition and the criteria by which each is judged. It also teaches that definitions are like tools in that some are better suited for a particular task than others.Several chapters are devoted to informal fallacies. A new classification is given for them, and the concept of proof is presented, without which some of the traditional informal fallacies cannot be explained adequately. Another chapter is devoted to division and classification, which occurs in all of the sciences.Other topics covered include the square of opposition, immediate inferences, and the syllogistic and chain arguments.

This volume summarizes recent developments in the topological and algebraic structures in fuzzy sets and may be rightly viewed as a continuation of the stan­ dardization of the mathematics of fuzzy sets established in the "Handbook", namely the Mathematics of Fuzzy Sets: Logic, Topology, and Measure Theory, Volume 3 of The Handbooks of Fuzzy Sets Series (Kluwer Academic Publish­ ers, 1999). Many of the topological chapters of the present work are not only based upon the foundations and notation for topology laid down in the Hand­ book, but also upon Handbook developments in convergence, uniform spaces, compactness, separation axioms, and canonical examples; and thus this work is, with respect to topology, a continuation of the standardization of the Hand­ book. At the same time, this work significantly complements the Handbook in regard to algebraic structures. Thus the present volume is an extension of the content and role of the Handbook as a reference work. On the other hand, this volume, even as the Handbook, is a culmination of mathematical developments motivated by the renowned International Sem­ inar on Fuzzy Set Theory, also known as the Linz Seminar, held annually in Linz, Austria. Much of the material of this volume is related to the Twenti­ eth Seminar held in February 1999, material for which the Seminar played a crucial and stimulating role, especially in providing feedback, connections, and the necessary screening of ideas.

This scarce antiquarian book is a facsimile reprint of the original. Due to its age, it may contain imperfections such as marks, notations, marginalia and flawed pages. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment for protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature in affordable, high quality, modern editions that are true to the original work.

This scarce antiquarian book is a facsimile reprint of the original. Due to its age, it may contain imperfections such as marks, notations, marginalia and flawed pages. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment for protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature in affordable, high quality, modern editions that are true to the original work.

When Bertrand Russell discovered an unresolvable contradiction in Gottlob Frege's (1848-1925) logical system, the effect was calamitous, embittering Frege and overshadowing his important work in analytical philosophy. Frege's student, Rudolf Carnap, took detailed notes of his lectures that show how Frege tried to address the contradiction and how he integrated his later doctrine of sense and reference into his exposition of logic. Reproduced in the original German with facing translations, these rare documents are published here for the first time.

Filosofien spørger efter den dybeste sandhed om verden og vor situation i verden: det, som under ingen omstændigheder kunnevære anderledes. Dette spørgsmål har filosofferne gennem historien forsøgt at besvare. De har opstillet forskellige filosofiske systemer,men ingen har vundet almen tilslutning; og det er i dag en udbredt opfattelse, at de filosofiske systemers tid er forbi. I stedet har man affundet sig med, at der ikke er nogen endegyldig sandhed, men at der kun er partikulære og lokale sandheder.Denne position er imidlertid selvmodsigende. Man kan ikke konsistent benægte, at vi kan nå frem til en endegyldig og universel sandhed om vor situation i verden, fordi denne benægtelse i så fald selv må få status som en endegyldig og absolut sandhed om vor situation i verden.Derfor lever vor kultur på en fundamental misforståelse af vor situation i verden. Og derfor gælder det om at få denne misforståelse ryddet af vejen. Det betyder, at vi skal begynde forfra med at stille det filosofiske spørgsmål helt fra bunden – og med forståelsen af, at vi ikke kan udelukke muligheden af et gyldigt svar, fordi en sådan udelukkelse vil være selvmodsigende.Det er dette, som gøres i denne bog. Det vises helt konkret,hvorledes man skal gå frem for at afdække det system af indbyrdes definerede grundbegreber, som må være forudsat enhver mulig virkelighedsbeskrivelse og enhver mulig beskrivelse af vor situation som personer. Og dermed gives i princippet et endegyldigt svar på den filosofiske spørgen.

Charles S. Peirce (1839-1914) ist der Begründer der Philosophie des Pragmatismus. Das Interesse für Zeichen und deren Betrachtung unter dem Aspekt ihrer praktischen Konsequenzen im Handeln, das den Ansatzpunkt seiner Philosophie bildet, ist für pragmatisches Denken bis heute verbindlich geblieben. Mit diesem Ansatz wurde Peirce auch zum Begründer der Semiotik und der Relationenlogik. Sein Handlungsbegriff bildet bis heute eine wesentliche Grundlage handlungstheoretischer Diskussionen. Der Aufsatz "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", den dieser Band im Original und in deutscher Übersetzung bringt, formuliert die entscheidenden Argumente, die zur Theorie des Pragmatismus geführt haben. Die Ausgabe enthält Einleitung, Übersetzung und einen ausführlichen Kommentar von Klaus Oehler und ein neues Nachwort von Edward Craig.

A Chance for Possibility defends the view that the objective modal realm is tripartite: truths about possible worlds supervene on modal truths, which in turn supervene on truths about objective chances.An understanding of supervenience in terms of grounding is developed which ? unlike the standard modal characterization ? allows the question of what modal truths supervene on to have a non-trivial answer. Relying on this understanding, a negative result is established: modal truths do not supervene on truths about possible worlds, whether possible worlds are conceived of as Lewisian concreta or as abstract objects of some kind. Instead, a conception of pleonastic possible worlds is developed that reverses the direction of supervenience. On the basis of linguistic considerations concerning our use of natural language 'might' and 'might have' sentences, Steinberg finally argues that truths about objective chances are able to provide a supervenience base for modal truths.A Chance for Possibility is an investigation in analytic metaphysics, drawing on related work in the philosophy of logic and language as well as linguistics. It provides a detailed case study for the fruitful use of a notion of grounding in the clarification and evaluation of longstanding philosophical issues.

This book provides the blueprint of a thinking machine.While most of the current works in Artificial Intelligence (AI) focus on individual aspects of intelligence and cognition, the project described in this book, Non-Axiomatic Reasoning System (NARS), is designed and developed to attack the AI problem as a whole.This project is based on the belief that what we call "intelligence" can be understood and reproduced as "the capability of a system to adapt to its environment while working with insufficient knowledge and resources". According to this idea, a novel reasoning system is designed, which challenges all the dominating theories in how such a system should be built. The system carries out reasoning, learning, categorizing, planning, decision making, etc., as different facets of the same underlying process. This theory also provides unified solutions to many problems in AI, logic, psychology, and philosophy.This book is the most comprehensive description of this decades-long project, including its philosophical foundation, methodological consideration, conceptual design details, its implications in the related fields, as well as its similarities and differences to many related works in cognitive sciences.

Karl Popper stellt in seinem Hauptwerk, der Logik der Forschung, die Erkenntnistheorie als Methodologie dar, die erklärt, warum unser Wissen fehlbar ist und warum wir nicht primär aus erfüllten, sondern aus gescheiterten Erwartungen lernen: Der Erkenntnisfortschritt resultiert aus Versuch und Irrtum. Die bedeutendsten Resultate des Buches sind das Falsifizierbarkeitskriterium zur Abgrenzung wissenschaftlicher Sätze und Poppers Vorschlag zur Lösung des Problems der empirischen Basis der Wissenschaft."[...] gehört Poppers Buch zu den wichtigsten gegenwärtigen Arbeiten auf dem Gebiet der Wissenschaftslogik. [...] Es wird Zustimmung und Widerspruch auslösen..."Rudolf Carnap in Erkenntnis, Bd. 5 (1935) S. 294

Formel logik er en grundlæggende, lettilgængelig indføring i klassisk doms- og prædikatslogik beregnet til undervisning på universitetsniveau. Den fokuserer på de semantiske metoder - sandhedstabeller og semantiske træer - frem for bevisteori. Derved giver den et klart og let tilgængeligt overblik over logiske nøglebegreber som gyldighed, formalisering, fortolkning, model og modeksempel. Dens kontante og præcise form såvel som de mange pædagogiske eksempler og øvelser har gjort den til en populær lærebog til introducerende logikkurser i gymnasiet og på videregående uddannelsesinstitutioner i Storbritannien, Australien og USA.  Med denne oversættelse foreligger den nu for første gang på dansk.