Metabolisme

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic health condition characterized by the destruction of beta cells in the pancreas. In this condition, the pancreas produces little or no insulin, a hormone that enables sugar to enter cells to produce energy. The major symptoms of type 1 diabetes are dry mouth, upset stomach and vomiting, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurry vision, and frequent infections of skin, urinary tract, vagina, etc. Glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test, random blood sugar test, and fasting blood sugar tests are major diagnostic tests used for type 1 diabetes. Its treatment is aimed at keeping blood sugar level under control and includes insulin administration, frequent blood sugar monitoring, eating healthy foods, exercising regularly and maintaining a healthy weight. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the medical management of type 1 diabetes. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of this medical condition. This book will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in the study and management of diabetes at various levels.

Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases caused by chronic high glucose levels in the blood. In this disease, beta cells (β cells) of the pancreas lose their ability to produce adequate insulin, or there is ineffective utilization of insulin by cells in the body. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) are the two prevalent types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks and damages the insulin producing beta cells. In type 2 diabetes the body becomes insulin resistant and there is an accumulation of sugar. Insulin resistance that is a result of insulin signaling inhibition leads to a series of immune responses that intensify the inflammatory state, leading to the condition of hyperglycemia. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to diabetes and immunology. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

The hypothalamus is a part of the brain, which is structurally small but functionally significant. The brainstem and its reticular formation are extremely interconnected with the hypothalamus. It is a part of the limbic system and it has connections to other limbic structures such as septum and amygdala. It is also well connected to the areas of the autonomous nervous system. The hypothalamus works as a control center for various endocrine functions. It regulates endocrine systems by secreting various hormones such as oxytocin, growth hormone-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, corticotropin-releasing hormone and antidiuretic hormone. Hypothalamic disease is a type of disorder which can lead to disruptions in growth, weight, emotions, sleep cycles, etc. It can also result in hypopituitarism, neurogenic diabetes insipidus, tertiary hypothyroidism, and developmental disorders. There are several causes of hypothalamic disease such as head trauma, radiation, tumor, genetic disorders, lesion, surgery, and illness caused due to malnutrition. This book attempts to understand the anatomy and dysfunction of the hypothalamus along with disease management. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

The hypothalamus is a functionally significant part of the brain. It works as a neural control center for entire endocrine systems, specifically in vertebrates. It maintains the internal balance of the body, which is referred to as homeostasis. Adrenal glands and thyroid gland are the primary endocrine glands in human beings. There are some glands that signal each other in sequence, commonly known as an axis, including hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The anterior pituitary regulates several endocrine glands and organs, which is a part of the central neuroendocrine function in hypothalamus. Complex homeostatic mechanisms, several hormonal and behavioral circadian rhythms, crucial behaviors and complicated patterns of neuroendocrine outputs are coordinated through hypothalamus. The extreme lateral part of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus is liable for controlling food intake. This book contains some path-breaking studies on endocrine functions and hypothalamus. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

The compounds of natural or human-made origin that are capable of interfering with the endocrine system of an organism are called endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). These compounds disrupt the normal physiology and homeostatic processes of the organism by mimicking or inhibiting naturally occurring hormones. EDCs are found in low levels in a lot of items due to which all people are exposed to compounds having estrogenic effects in their daily lives. DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and a range of phthalates are among the chemicals regularly found in individuals. Endocrine-disrupting substances bind classical nuclear hormone receptors by disrupting other pathways regulating hormone synthesis or action processes of the organism. EDCs severely affect the cellular and whole-body metabolism. They may also act as causative agents in a wide spectrum of metabolic disorders in humans, including obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and cardiovascular dysfunction. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to endocrine disruption and its effects on human health. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers engaged in this area of study.

Drug metabolism refers to the conversion of a drug molecule into other related compounds throughout the body. There are drug modifying enzymes (DME), such as cytochrome P450, which are involved in the modification of an administered drug during the process of drug metabolism. The liver is the primary organ involved in the modification and removal of drug compounds, along with numerous other locations within the body. The therapeutic efficacy of a drug is influenced by many factors, including pharmacokinetics. It refers to the passage of a drug through the body's biological system. There are four different phases in the passage of a drug in the human body, which includes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). These pharmacokinetic qualities collectively provide deeper insights into the performance of a drug and help to establish the optimal dosage. This book provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book aims to equip students and experts with the advanced topics and upcoming concepts in this area of study.

Diabetes refers to a type of metabolic disorder characterized by a persistently high blood sugar level. It occurs as a result of inflammation in an intricate immunological process. Insulin resistance is caused by inhibition of insulin signaling which triggers a sequence of immune responses that aggravate the inflammatory state and leads to hyperglycemia. The common symptoms of diabetes are increased appetite, frequent urination and increased thirst. It is classified into three types, namely, gestational diabetes, type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. The diagnosis of diabetes can be done through blood tests to measure the amount of glucose level in the blood. Diabetes management focuses on maintaining blood sugar levels as close to normal, while avoiding hypoglycemia. This can be usually achieved through weight loss, dietary changes, usage of appropriate medications and exercise. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the molecular, cellular and clinical immunology of diabetes. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the condition.

Diabetes is a condition that causes high levels of blood sugar in the body. It can result in health complications for pregnant women along with their developing babies. The type of diabetes that develops in women during pregnancy is called gestational diabetes. Some of its common symptoms are frequent urination, increased thirst, and excessive eating. It can be caused due to hormonal changes during pregnancy that reduces the ability of the body to use insulin. The diagnosis for gestational diabetes involves tests including the glucose challenge test and the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The management and prevention of this disease involves following a healthy diet, physical exercise and insulin intake. Some of the preventive measures are reducing extra weight before pregnancy and being physically active during pregnancy. This book contains clinical guidelines for the management of diabetes and its complications during pregnancy. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. For all those who are interested in these diseases, this book can prove to be an essential guide.

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases that involves inadequate control of the blood glucose levels. There are several types of diabetes, including type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), gestational diabetes, and neonatal diabetes. Its signs and symptoms are increased thirst, tiredness, blurred vision, numbness or tingling in the hands or feet, slow-healing sores or cuts, unexpected weight loss, frequent urination, etc. Severe and long-time cases of diabetes are associated with serious medical health problems, such as coronary artery disease, neuropathy, retinopathy, dental problems, etc. The diagnosis involves some tests to measure the body's blood glucose level. These include fasting plasma glucose test, random plasma glucose test, and hemoglobin A1c test. Diabetes treatments vary according to the type and severity of the disease and include several types of medications and transplants, like pancreatic islet transplant and pancreas transplant. This book provides comprehensive insights into the clinical assessment and therapeutics for diabetes mellitus. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, it targets medical students and professionals.

Type 2 diabetes is a medical condition characterized by impaired regulation of blood sugar levels in the body. In this condition, pancreas is unable to produce insulin hormone that regulates the circulation of sugar into cells. Chronic type 2 diabetes is associated with complications of immune, circulatory and nervous systems. Common signs of type 2 diabetes involve frequent urination, fatigue, increased thirst, unintended weight loss and blurred vision. Glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test is one of the major diagnostic tests used to detect diabetes by examining blood sugar level. Preventive measures such as lifestyle changes like eating healthy, regular exercise and weight loss, insulin therapy, and monitoring blood sugar can help in the management of diabetes. The topics included in this book on the detection and medical management of type 2 diabetes are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

The adrenal cortex is the outer region of the adrenal gland. It is also the largest part of an adrenal gland. The specific zones of adrenal cortex synthesize different hormones that control sex (androgens, estrogens), salt balance in the blood (aldosterone) and sugar balance (cortisol). The excess or deficient secretion of each type of adrenal hormone causes severe disorders that include hypercortisolism, adrenal insufficiency, hyperaldosteronism, hypoaldosteronism, and androgen excess. Hypercortisolismm, also known as Addison's disease, is a disorder marked by inadequate production of the steroid hormones cortisol and aldosterone that causes adrenal inefficiency. The signs and symptoms of this disease are abdominal pain and gastrointestinal abnormalities, weakness, weight loss, and darkening of skin in certain areas. Cushing syndrome is caused due to excessive release of cortisol hormone in the body. This syndrome leads to weight gain and fatty tissue deposits, slow healing of cuts, insect bites and infections, acne, etc. This book explores all the important aspects of adrenal cortex disorders in the present day scenario. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about these disorders.

Neuroendocrinology is a branch of biology that studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, such as the regulation of hormonal activity in the body by the brain. Progesterone and estrogen are the reproductive hormones in women while testosterone is present in men. These hormones are produced by primary reproductive glands, which include testes in men and ovaries in women. They are regulated through hormone signals generated by the follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone and pituitary gland. The neuroendocrine system regulates reproduction, metabolism, eating and drinking behavior, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure. The neuroendocrine system regulates all aspects of reproduction, from bonding to sexual behavior. Spermatogenesis, the ovarian cycle, parturition, lactation, and maternal behavior are all controlled by this system. It also controls the body's reaction to stress and infection. This book explores all the important aspects of clinical reproductive neuroendocrinology in the present day scenario. It is a vital tool for all researching and studying this field. The book will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

Autophagy is a process in which cells capture their own cytoplasm and organelles and consume them in lysosomes. This mechanism preserves the health of cells and tissues through the replacement of damaged and outdated cellular components with new ones. The breakdown products serve as inputs to cellular metabolism. Autophagy prevents degenerative diseases as it is a powerful promoter of metabolic homeostasis at both the cellular and whole animal level. It reduces ubiquitinated protein accumulation in the brain, and disposes-off the aggregation-prone proteins and damaged organelles that cause Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease. The metabolic syndrome refers to a group of medical conditions which increase the likelihood of heart disease, diabetes and stroke. It encompasses high blood sugar, hypertension, high cholesterol levels and excess fat around the waist. The process of autophagy has an effect on the development of metabolic syndrome since the metabolic syndrome is caused due to the accumulation of damaged cellular constituents. This book includes some of the vital pieces of works being conducted across the world, on various topics related to autophagy and metabolic syndrome. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of medicine as well as for experts.

Metabolism refers to a range of chemical processes that occur when the body converts the food consumed by a person into energy. A metabolic disorder occurs when abnormal chemical reactions disrupt the metabolism of the body. Genetics, mitochondrial dysfunction, and organ dysfunction are some of its common causes. There are various kinds of metabolic disorders including Gaucher's disease, diabetes, hemochromatosis, phenylketonuria, and mitochondrial disorders. Some common symptoms of these disorders include reduced appetite, stomach pain, muscle weakness, tiredness, changes in skin color, unexpected weight gain or loss, and developmental problems in babies and infants. Metabolic syndrome comprises a group of five medical conditions which can lead to various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease and stroke. These conditions are high blood glucose, high levels of triglycerides in the blood, large waist circumference, low levels of HDL cholesterol and high blood pressure. The topics covered in this book offer the readers new insights into metabolic dysfunction. It includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide innovative insights into these disorders. The book will greatly assist the researchers and students associated with the diagnosis and management of metabolic dysfunction.

Glucose is the primary source of energy in body. Hypoglycemia is a condition which occurs when the blood sugar (glucose) level falls lower than normal. It can cause headaches, fatigue, clumsiness, difficulty in speaking, disorientation, a racing heart, sweating, shakiness, nervousness, hunger, loss of consciousness, seizures, or death. Medications used to treat diabetes, such as insulin, sulfonylureas, and biguanides, are the most common cause of hypoglycemia. People with diabetes who have eaten less than usual, exercised recently, or have consumed alcohol are at higher risk for this medical condition. Medical problems like sepsis, kidney failure, liver disease, hormone insufficiency, malignancies such as insulinomas or non-B cell tumours, inborn metabolic abnormalities, numerous drugs, and alcohol can all lead to hypoglycemia. This book presents new insights into the causes and consequences of hypoglycemia. It consists of contributions made by international experts. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Secondary metabolites refer to a heterogeneous group of natural metabolic products, which are not directly involved in the normal growth and development, or reproduction of an organism. They can be produced by any life form such as bacteria, fungi, animals or plants. Secondary metabolites are responsible for mediating ecological interactions, which may benefit the organism by increasing its survivability or fertility. They are classified into five main classes according to their structure, function and biosynthesis. These include terpenoids and steroids, fatty acid-derived substances and polyketides, alkaloids, non-ribosomal polypeptides, and enzyme cofactors. There are several medical applications of secondary metabolites due to their immunosuppressant, antitumor, antiprotozoal, antihelminth, antiviral, and anti-aging properties. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to secondary metabolites, their bioactive properties, and therapeutic applications. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the latest concepts in this area of study.

Thyroid is a tiny butterfly-shaped gland, located just below the voice box in the lower front part of the neck. Thyroid surgery involves removal of the thyroid gland partially or completely. The presence of tumors or nodules on the thyroid gland is the most frequent reason for thyroid surgery. The majority of nodules are benign but some are precancerous or cancerous. Thyroid surgery can be categorized into different types such as total thyroidectomy, lobectomy and subtotal thyroidectomy. Thyroid surgery carries various risks such as negative reaction to general anesthesia, infection and excessive bleeding. After the surgery, the patient may also experience permanent, transient or superior laryngeal nerve injury, seromas, permanent or temporary hypoparathyroidism, and hematomas. This book aims to understand the various aspects of thyroid surgery. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field. Medical professionals and students actively engaged in this field will find it full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Obesity is a medical condition in which the body gains an excessive amount of fat. It is a complex disease that is associated with other health complications, such as heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and certain cancers. Diabetes is a metabolic health condition that affects the mechanism through which the body uses blood sugar. Obesity can affect the mechanism of the body with which it uses insulin to manage blood sugar levels. This leads to an increased risk of insulin resistance and diabetes. The diagnosis of obesity involves skinfold thickness tests, waist-to-hip comparisons, and screening tests such as ultrasounds, CT scans and MRI scans. Blood tests which examine cholesterol and glucose levels, liver function tests, diabetes screening, thyroid tests, and heart tests are performed to diagnose health risks linked with diabetes. Treatment for obesity may include weight loss medications, eating and exercise plans, whereas insulin injections, carbohydrate counting, and frequent blood sugar checks help in the management of diabetes. This book outlines the diagnosis and management of obesity and diabetes in detail. It is a vital tool for all researching and studying these medical conditions.

Metabolism refers to the process through which a human body produces energy from food. In this process, food is broken down into sugars and acids with the help of chemicals in the digestive system. These acids and sugars provide the energy or fuel for the body, which is used to perform various functions by the body. Metabolic diseases are a group of diseases that cause a disruption in the metabolic process due to abnormal chemical reactions within the body. These diseases affect the parts of the cells that function to produce energy. The most common sign of metabolic diseases is diabetes along with increased circumference of the waist. The causes include obesity and physical inactivity. Metabolic diseases are linked with the complications related to heart and vessel disease. Preventive methods, such as limiting saturated fat and salt in diet, consuming sufficient vegetables and fruits, and avoiding smoking, can help in the management and control of conditions that lead to metabolic diseases. The topics included in this book on metabolic diseases are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Cellular metabolism refers to the set of chemical reactions that take place within the cells of living organisms for maintaining life. Complex sequences of well controlled biochemical reactions are a part of cellular metabolism. These processes enable organisms to develop and reproduce, preserve their structural integrity and adapt to changes in their environment. Cell metabolism reflects the state of the cell's health. The mitochondrion is the primary source of energy for the cell, where bioenergetic processes take place by absorbing fuel sources like fatty acids and glucose. Afterwards, it gets converted into energy through a series of enzymatic reactions. Cellular bioenergetics deregulation results in various pathologies, like neurodegenerative diseases, cancer and diabetes. Cancer is characterized by altered cellular metabolism which aids in the development, growth and maintenance of tumors, as well as malignant transformation. This book contains some path-breaking studies on the role of cellular metabolism in health and disease. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water. They include fat, oil, wax and hormones. Lipids serve many different functions in the human body such as helping in signal transduction, contributing to the structural integrity of cellular membranes, and regulating the energy metabolism. The process of lipid metabolism involves biosynthesis and lipid degradation. Biosynthesis is a metabolic process that involves the conversion of excess carbohydrate and protein into fatty acids and triglycerides. Beta-oxidation is a metabolic degradation process that is involved in the breakdown of fatty acid molecules in the mitochondria or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA. There are some positive health benefits associated with the consumption of fatty acids. However, there are some risk factors such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity related to the total dietary intake of fats and other lipids. This book addresses the role of lipids in human function and health. Its extensive content provides the medical students and researchers interested in studying lipids with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Obesity is a term used to describe a condition wherein a person's body has an excessive percentage of fat. Metabolic surgery is an effective and long-term treatment for managing the cases of morbid obesity. It leads to significant weight loss and helps improve, resolve or prevent a variety of related diseases such as hypertension, type-2 diabetes, sleep apnea, heart disease and some types of cancers. Metabolic surgery is highly effective in achieving significant and durable weight loss at a low perioperative risk when proper patient selection and long-term follow-up are ensured. It is also a potentially effective treatment option for type-2 diabetes patients who are obese. Metabolic surgery, also called bariatric surgery, involves making surgical changes in the organs of the digestive system in order to improve the health of the patient. Common surgical processes involved in metabolic surgery include sleeve gastrectomy, gastric bypass, bilio-pancreatic diversion, gastric band and duodenal switch. Within days to weeks after metabolic surgery, diabetes condition of the patient begins to improve. However, weight loss happens gradually. This book presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe with respect to obesity and metabolic surgery. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Graves' disease refers to a disorder affecting the immune system which leads to the overproduction of thyroid hormones. Graves' ophthalmopathy, also called Graves' orbitopathy, is an autoimmune disease affecting the retro-ocular tissues in patients having Graves' disease. It is primarily the disease of the orbit and can have severe implications, such as loss of sight. It causes swelling in the area around the eyes, which causes bulging of the eyes. The symptoms of Graves' ophthalmopathy include double vision, bulging eyes, swelling in the eyelids, vision loss, sensitivity to light, redness or inflammation, and difficulty in moving eyes. This disease results in increased extraocular muscle volume and orbital fat in the orbital space. The targets of autoimmune attack within Graves' ophthalmopathy are the fibroblasts residing in the orbital tissues. Radiation, immunosuppression and surgical procedures, like orbital decompression surgery, eye muscle surgery and eyelid surgery are utilized to treat severe forms of this disease. This book contains some path-breaking studies on Graves' Ophthalmopathy. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the study of this disease. The book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Neuroendocrinology is a discipline of biology that investigates the relationship between the nervous system and endocrine system. It studies the regulation of the hormonal activity of the body by the brain. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that controls feeding behavior (food intake) and energy balance. Feeding behavior refers to any action of an animal that is directed towards the procurement of nutrients. Deregulation of feeding behavior, which results in weight loss or gain, has been linked to either high-grade or low-grade hypothalamic inflammation. Neuroendocrine systems are involved in the integration of hunger and satiety signals and the regulation of energy homeostasis. These hold the possibility of new treatment options for eating disorders and diseases. This book unravels the recent studies on neuroendocrine control and behavior with respect to feeding behavior. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Coronavirus disease (Covid-19) is a family of viruses, which causes illnesses like Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and common cold. Diabetes is a complex chronic disease characterized by dysregulation of blood glucose levels in the body. It is caused by a complete deficiency of insulin or body inability to utilize insulin. There are various factors present in diabetes that are likely to increase the risk and contribute to the development of Covid-19. Some of these factors include a hypercoagulable and proinflammatory state, hyperglycemia, and underlying comorbidities such as chronic kidney disease, hypertension, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. The treatment of a severe Covid-19 infection with steroids can lead to the worsening of hyperglycemia through increased insulin resistance and reduced β-cell secretory function. This book provides significant insights into the associations between Covid-19 and diabetes as well as its possible mechanisms. It consists of researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

Liver is an integral part of the process of metabolism. It helps in the preservation and regulation of the lipid and glucose levels in the body, as well as in energy metabolism. The most common metabolic diseases which can affect the liver are Wilson disease, hereditary hemochromatosis, and Alpha-I antitrypsin deficiency (AATD). Some of the other types of disorders which affect the liver are infections, immune system issues, cancers, and heritable conditions. One of the upcoming methods of study which is used to study the cell metabolism within the liver is metabolomics. It refers to the scientific study of chemical processes involving metabolites, the small molecule substrates, intermediates, and products of cell metabolism. Metabolomics has a very high potential to detect biomarker candidates for the prospective advancement of new therapeutics. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of liver metabolism and the recent researches in this field with respect to liver diseases. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to both medical students and professionals.

Childhood obesity refers to a state in which a child's health or well-being is harmed by the presence of excess fat in the body. The methods to identify and evaluate body fat are problematic and due to this reason, BMI is frequently used to diagnose the presence and extent of obesity. The prevalence of obesity in children varies by gender and sex. The longer a child remains obese or overweight; the more likely it is that the child will grow up to be obese with all the associated morbidities. Children are exposed to a variety of social, nutritional and obesogenic environmental risks influencing their health throughout the life. Child obesity can be managed with physical activity and dietary changes. These play a significant role in ensuring a child's health and in maintaining the nutritional level, and diet patterns and quality. This book explores all the contemporary issues and challenges related to childhood obesity in the present day scenario. It strives to provide a fair idea about obesity in children and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances in its clinical management. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Androgen deficiency refers to a type of medical condition characterized by low levels of androgenic activity in the human body. It indicates that the level of male sex hormones, specifically testosterone, is lower than the requirement in a healthy adult. There are various signs and symptoms of androgen deficiency, such as exhaustion and lethargy, loss of body hair, diminished sex drive, melancholy, decreased ejaculate production, etc. It can be caused by impairments in testicles, hypothalamus or pituitary gland. The diagnosis of androgen deficiency is done by utilizing a variety of evaluations, such as blood tests, physical examinations, medical histories and other tests. Testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) is used to treat androgen deficiency. Topical creams, oral medications, transdermal patches and intramuscular injections are examples of TRT procedures. It is a popular treatment for men who have symptomatic hypogonadism. This book unravels the recent studies on testosterone replacement. It is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the assessment and management of androgen deficiency through testosterone replacement. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

The term adrenal cortex refers to the outer region and largest part of an adrenal gland. Adrenal cortex is divided into three distinct layers, namely, zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculate, and zona reticularis. The responsibility of each layer is to produce specific hormones. It is also the secondary site for the synthesis of androgens. Zona glomerulosa is the outermost layer of the adrenal cortex. This layer is the main site for the synthesis of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid. The second zone, zona fasciculata is located between zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. The basic function of this zone is to produce and secrete glucocorticoids, such as 11-deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, and cortisol. The major hormone that stimulates cortisol secretion in humans is the ACTH that is released from the anterior pituitary. The third zone, zona reticularis is the innermost layer that produces androgens, namely, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. This book provides significant information on the pathology and biology of adrenal cortex. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in the field of endocrinology.

Diabetes refers to a group of metabolic disorders that are characterized by having high blood sugar level over a long time. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a type of diabetes which is characterized by relative lack of insulin, high blood sugar and insulin resistance. The usual symptoms of T2D are frequent urination, unexplained weight loss and increased thirst. There can be other symptoms such as fatigue, increased hunger and sores which do not heal easily. Symptoms usually occur gradually. Long-term complications of high blood sugar may lead to several diseases such as strokes, diabetic retinopathy, heart disease, kidney failure and poor blood flow. There are various preventive measures for T2D, which include consuming a healthy diet, maintaining a normal weight and exercising regularly. Treatment of T2D includes dietary changes and exercise. This book aims to understand the clinical perspectives of type 2 diabetes. It strives to provide a fair idea about role of diet and nutrition in T2D and to help develop a better understanding for its clinical management. Those with an interest in this disease would find this book helpful.