Bøger af Jesse Harasta

*Includes pictures. *Includes historic accounts about the myth of El Dorado. *Includes a bibliography and footnotes for further reading. Alongside the famous Lost City of Atlantis, perhaps no mythological city has captured the imaginations of people or been the source for exploration quite like El Dorado, the fabled city of gold that the Spanish believed was located somewhere in South America. The origins of the Spaniards' belief in the existence of the mythical city was based on their rumors surrounding the tribal chief of the Muisca in present-day Colombia; the Spanish heard that his initiation included covering himself with gold dust and diving into Lake Guatavita. Of course, if the chief could cover himself in gold, he must have access to a lot of it, and around this figure, the myth of El Dorado sprang up as the location of it. Naturally, the belief in the existence of El Dorado propelled it from being merely a city to an entire empire itself, and this spurred several journeys in the 16th century, including one by Francisco Pizarro's half-brother, Gonzalo, and another by Sir Walter Raleigh. Although none of these journeys actually discovered such a place, they resulted in plenty of lives lost and a lot of exploration of the heart of South America. Moreover, despite the fact none of the explorers actually found El Dorado, the rumors and journeys only cemented the belief that such a place existed, and El Dorado was actually located on maps made by several European nations for centuries. As folklorist Jim Griffith once put it, "El Dorado shifted geographical locations until finally it simply meant a source of untold riches somewhere in the Americas."In fact, it would not be until about the early 19th century that explorer Alexander von Humboldt disproved El Dorado's existence, at least in the spot it was assumed to be located for over 200 years. Although no El Dorado was ever found, the myth still fascinates people today, and it remains a pop culture fixture around the globe. El Dorado is also still used as a metaphor not only for places where people seek to get rich quick but even as a mentality and mindset, much like the notion of the American Dream. El Dorado: The Search for the Fabled City of Gold chronicles the origins behind the myth and the history of the actual journeys that sought to discover the city. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about El Dorado like never before, in no time at all.

Un anciano con un solo ojo, con un manto gris y sombrero de ala ancha, apoyándose de un bastón. Un vagabundo que aparece cuando menos se le espera, trayendo triunfo o perdición. El dios de la profecía, la poesía y el destino. Un cambiaformas. Un hechicero. El dios Odín es una figura dramática en la mitología nórdica y es aún parte del imaginario popular. Ha sido la inspiración para figuras como Gandalf el Gris, de J.R.R. Tolkien, y todavía figura en literatura moderna tan variada como los cómics de Marvel o la novela de Neil Gaiman American Gods (2001). Junto a su hijo Thor, Odín es uno de los dioses nórdicos mejor conocidos y a menudo es fácil olvidar que alguna vez estuvo en el corazón de un panteón adorado con devoción por millones de europeos en la Edad Media. Odín tiene muchos nombres y títulos (más de doscientos, según una fuente), pero su título más conocido es el de "Padre de todos" o "Padre Universal", el co-creador de la Tierra (el "Midgard"), la humanidad y todas las criaturas que habitan este mundo. Es también, de forma importante, el dios de la profecía, el éxtasis y la poesía, todos roles conectados muy estrechamente en el mundo nórdico, donde la línea entre poeta y profeta era borrosa y eran vistos como poseedores de inspiración a través de una especie de furia extática. Estos roles estaban conectados al patronazgo de Odín sobre el conocimiento, en especial aquel de tipo místico, ya que él era el descubridor de las runas mágicas y canciones que luego transmitió a la humanidad. Esto no llegó sin sacrificio, puesto que hubo de arrancarse su propio ojo y yacer muerto por nueve días para adquirirlo. Un martillo que ningún mortal puede levantar. Un flamante dios de la tormenta, con cabello cual llamas. Un héroe-dios-alienígena que defiende a la humanidad. La esvástica. Incluso el nombre Thursday [jueves en inglés] es "Thor's Day" [el día de Thor]. A pesar de la virtual desaparición de la religión autóctona y mitología nórdica siglos atrás, aún se encuentra con regularidad en la sociedad moderna al dios de la tormenta, Thor, quien continúa siendo traído de vuelta a la vida en forma de literatura y más recientemente, como protagonista de películas taquilleras de Hollywood. ¿Qué tiene en particular este dios, entre los cientos (si no miles) de deidades que fueron arrojadas al basurero de la historia por las grandes religiones del mundo, que captura de tal manera la imaginación de las personas hasta el día de hoy? Una mejor comprensión del atractivo de Thor puede hallarse prácticamente en cualquiera de los aspectos de la historia y evolución de esta figura a lo largo de los siglos, incluyendo los orígenes del dios, las imágenes evocativas con las que es descrito, e incluso los paralelismos entre Thor y otros dioses y héroes similares. Todo esto ha sido alimentado por la literatura, como las historias sobre Thor encontradas en la Edda Mayor o poética y la Edda Menor o prosaica, así como la conexión que las sociedades han tenido con Thor por cientos de años, incluso hoy en día. El presente trabajo también examina el declive y desplazamiento de la mitología escandinava/nórdica por parte del Cristianismo, las razones por las que Thor fue a menudo el último dios que adoraron los nórdicos y los vestigios actuales del "Thorismo", incluyendo los paralelos con otras fes, su rol en el renacimiento de un Neo-paganismo y su aparición en otros medios como un héroe de historietas y películas. En conjunto con fotografías y bibliografía, aprenderás sobre Thor como nunca antes, y en nada de tiempo.

*Includes pictures. *Explains the history of Tenochtitlan from its founding to its destruction by Cortes and the Spanish. *Includes descriptions of Tenochtitlan by Spanish conquistadors, including Cortes' 1520 letter to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. *Describes the layout of Tenochtitlan and its important structures. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. "When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land... we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments they tell of in the legend of Amadis, on account of the great towers and buildings rising from the water and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream... I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about." - Bernal Díaz del Castillo Mexico City is now easily the largest city in the Western Hemisphere, trailing only Tokyo internationally, but unlike the other great cities of the Americas, Mexico City is not a new place. Mexico City instead has much in common with cities like London, Delhi or Cairo in the East in that it is an ancient city dating back centuries before the arrival of Colombus in Hispañola. For, while much (including the name) has changed, Mexico City is the mighty Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire and the great American metropolis of the Spanish Empire. There has been no break in occupation, and despite much devastation in the Conquest, the city was never fully destroyed. Indeed, from the moment Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés first found and confronted them, the Aztecs have fascinated the world, and they continue to hold a unique place both culturally and in pop culture. Nearly 500 years after the Spanish conquered their mighty empire, the Aztecs are often remembered today for their major capital, Tenochtitlan, as well as being fierce conquerors of the Valley of Mexico who often engaged in human sacrifice rituals. But thanks to the Spanish conquest, even though the Aztecs continue to interest people across the world centuries after their demise, it has fallen on archaeologists and historians to try to determine the actual history, culture, and lives of the Aztecs from the beginning to the end, relying on excavations, primary accounts, and more. Much of what is known today does come from the Conquistadores, and what those men encountered was entirely unexpected: one of the world's greatest cities, teeming with over 200,000 people, built on an island on a lake and connected to the shore by a number of long, broad stone causeways. On the water itself were remarkable floating gardens, on surrounding shorelines were sprawling suburbs, and behind them was a dramatic wall of mountain peaks. Tenochtitlan: The History of the Aztec's Most Famous City comprehensively covers the history of the city, examining what life was like in the great city, who ruled the city, and what the day-to-day existence of all sorts of Tenocha (people of the city) was like. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Tenochtitlan like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures. *Includes ancient accounts of the Druids written by Caesar, Cicero, Pliny, and more. *Explains the modern revival of Druids. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. "Throughout all of Gaul there are two classes of people who are treated with dignity and honor. This does not include the common people, who are little better than slaves and never have a voice in councils. Many of these align themselves with a patron voluntarily, whether because of debt or heavy tribute or out of fear of retribution by some other powerful person. Once they do this, they have given up all rights and are scarcely better than servants. The two powerful classes mentioned above are the Druids and the warriors. Druids are concerned with religious matters, public and private sacrifices, and divination." - Julius Caesar The Celts are one of the most well-known groups in Europe and one of the least understood. Depending on which classifications are used, the Celts are also one of the oldest civilizations in Europe. In the centuries before Christ, the Celts were spread out across much of continental Europe, and though they are mostly identified with Gaul, evidence suggests they also spread as far as Portugal. However, even though they were spread out across Europe before the height of the Roman Empire, most people associate the Celts with the British Isles today, particularly Ireland and Scotland. After they had been relegated to those smaller regions as a result of the Romans and other migrations, the culture of the Celts as it is currently understood began to congeal during the Early Middle Ages, and Celtic culture, folklore, and legend have all become inextricably intertwined with Irish history and British history as a whole. The Celts have fascinated people for centuries, and the biggest fascination of all has been over the Druids, a religious class at the heart of Celtic society that wielded great power. Naturally, people have been interested in Druids for centuries mostly because they don't understand much about the Druids or their practices. The earliest meaning of the word comes from the Ancient Romans, who labeled them "Druidae" in reference to the white robed order of Celtic priests living in Gaul, Britain and Ireland. They were a well-organized, secretive group who kept no written records and performed their rituals - allegedly including human sacrifice - in oaken groves, all of which interested and horrified the Romans. The order was eventually crushed under the weight of first Roman conquest and then the imposition of Christianity, and from the remains, centuries of myths, imaginings and dreams were superimposed over the little that was known about the Druids. Not surprisingly, people have come to associate the Druids with what have been imposed. Even today, there is a revived Druidic religious movement that fuses this skeleton of knowledge about the ancient Druids with ideas such as rituals at standing stones (like Stonehenge), nature and sun worship, the carrying of ornate staves, and Arthuriana. Wider popular culture has seen "Druids" - usually some form of secretive nature-priests - in games like Dungeons and Dragons and World of Warcraft, and films like Wicker Man (1973 and 2006) and Druids (2001). The Druids: The History and Mystery of the Ancient Celtic Priests explores the known and unknown about the Druids, from the historical evidence of their existence and practices to the evolution of Druidic concepts over time. This book also looks at the growth of Druidism since the 1700s, along with the practitioners who embrace new ideas and beliefs. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Druids like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century, like the Greeks and the Romans, but of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. At the heart of the fascination is the most visited and the most spectacular of Late Classic Maya cities: Chichén Itzá. Chichén Itzá was inhabited for hundreds of years and was a very influential center in the later years of Maya civilization. At its height, Chichén Itzá may have had over 30,000 inhabitants, and with a spectacular pyramid, enormous ball court, observatory and several temples, the builders of this city exceeded even those at Uxmal in developing the use of columns and exterior relief decoration. Of particular interest at Chichén Itzá is the sacred cenote, a sinkhole was a focus for Maya rituals around water. Because adequate supplies of water, which rarely collected on the surface of the limestone based Yucatan, were essential for adequate agricultural production, the Maya here considered it of primary importance. Underwater archaeology carried out in the cenote at Chichén Itzá revealed that offerings to the Maya rain deity Chaac (which may have included people) were tossed into the sinkhole. Although Chichén Itzá was around for hundreds of years, it had a relatively short period of dominance in the region, lasting from about 800-950 A.D. Today, tourists are taken by guides to a building called the Nunnery for no good reason other than the small rooms reminded the Spaniards of a nunnery back home. Similarly the great pyramid at Chichén Itzá is designated El Castillo ("The Castle"), which it almost certainly was not, while the observatory is called El Caracol ("The Snail") for its spiral staircase. Of course, the actual names for these places were lost as the great Maya cities began to lose their populations, one by one. Chichén Itzá was partially abandoned in 948, and the culture of the Maya survived in a disorganized way until it was revived at Mayapán. Mayapán emerged first as a minor settlement in the orbit of Chichén, but it slowly came to replace it after the larger city's trade connections with the Toltecs of Tula crumbled and it suffered a staggering defeat by Mayapán's armies. The building styles and art in their city show both admiring references to the great Chichén Itzá as well as an attempt to position Mayapán as a more orthodox heir of Maya tradition. At the same time, they emulated many features and could not escape the tremendous influences - especially in religion - of Chichén. This is seen in the fact that many of the most important buildings in the new city appear to be small-scale reproductions of ones in Chichén. Due in part to the fact that it has long been overshadowed by Chichén Itzá, a lot excavation and scholarly research on the site has only come about in recent decades, and even though there is still plenty of work to do, a lot of information about life in Mayapán has been unearthed. At its height, Mayapán may have boasted a population of over 15,000, and archaeologists have had their hands full trying to discover and restore the several thousand buildings both inside Mayapán's walls and outside them. Chichén Itzá & Mayapán: The Most Famous Mayan Capitals of the Postclassic Period comprehensively covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation surrounding the purpose of Chichén Itzá and the debate over the buildings. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Maya's most famous cities like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures. *Includes footnotes for further reading. Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century, like the Greeks and the Romans, but of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. At the heart of the fascination is Chichén Itzá, the most visited Mayan site, but Chichén Itzá's prominence lasted for less than 200 years and was eventually succeeded by Mayapán, which lasted as the capital of the Maya for nearly 225 years until the middle of the 15th century. The Mayans are still remembered and celebrated for their culture and their contributions to astronomy, language, and sports, and many of their advancements came with Mayapán as their capital. Early Mayapán was closely connected to the overshadowing power of the region at the time: the mighty trading city of Chichén Itzá. Mayapán emerged first as a minor settlement in the orbit of Chichén, but it slowly came to replace it after the larger city's trade connections with the Toltecs of Tula crumbled and it suffered a staggering defeat by Mayapán's armies. The building styles and art in their city show both admiring references to the great Chichén Itzá as well as an attempt to position Mayapán as a more orthodox heir of Maya tradition. At the same time, they emulated many features and could not escape the tremendous influences - especially in religion - of Chichén. This is seen in the fact that many of the most important buildings in the new city appear to be small-scale reproductions of ones in Chichén. Due in part to the fact that it has long been overshadowed by Chichén Itzá, a lot excavation and scholarly research on the site has only come about in recent decades, and even though there is still plenty of work to do, a lot of information about life in Mayapán has been unearthed. At its height, Mayapán may have boasted a population of over 15,000, and archaeologists have had their hands full trying to discover and restore the several thousand buildings both inside Mayapán's walls and outside them as well. Mayapán: The History of the Mayan Capital covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation and debate over the city's buildings. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Mayan capital like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures of important people and places. *Explains the origins, history, and social structure of the Pawnee. *Includes a Bibliography for further reading. "All things in the world are two. In our minds we are two, good and evil. With our eyes we see two things, things that are fair and things that are ugly. We have the right hand that strikes and makes for evil, and we have the left hand full of kindness, near the heart. One foot may lead us to an evil way, the other foot may lead us to a good. So are all things two, all two." - Letakos-Lesa (Eagle Chief), a member of the Pawnee From the Trail of Tears to Wounded Knee and Little Bighorn, the narrative of American history is incomplete without the inclusion of the Native Americans that lived on the continent before European settlers arrived in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the first contact between natives and settlers, tribes like the Sioux, Cherokee, and Navajo have both fascinated and perplexed outsiders with their history, language, and culture. In Charles River Editors' Native American Tribes series, readers can get caught up to speed on the history and culture of North America's most famous native tribes in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known. One of the most famous Native American tribes on the Great Plains is the Pawnee, and they were also once one of the strongest groups in the region. At the turn of the 19th century, there were about 10,000 members spread across much of modern day Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota and even into Missouri and Iowa. The Pawnee were able to thrive despite having strong neighbors to their west, most notably the Arapaho and the Lakota Sioux, and though the different Pawnee bands were autonomous, they also recognized the need to cooperate with each other to face various threats. For several centuries, the Pawnee lived in relatively sedentary communities, relying on agriculture in what is today known as America's "breadbasket", and anthropologists have found Pawnee settlements that date all the way back to the 13th century. Inevitably, however, European contact began to drastically affect the Pawnee's lifestyle, especially when horses were introduced to their societies. Like other groups on the Plains, the Pawnee eventually became more reliant on buffalo and thus more nomadic. Like other Native American groups in the region, the westward push by American settlers led to conflicts that nearly wiped out all of the Pawnee by the latter half of the 19th century. Nonetheless, the Pawnee were resilient enough to have their numbers bounce back, even as their lands were taken and they moved onto reservations. Today, the Pawnee live on reservations that are only a fraction of the size of the vast expanses they once controlled. Native American Tribes: The History and Culture of the Pawnee comprehensively covers the culture and history of the famous group, profiling their origins, their history, and their lasting legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about one of the most influential tribes of the Great Plains like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures. *Explains the Taj Mahal's construction history and cultural influences. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. "Should guilty seek asylum here, Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, All his past sins are to be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice has been made; To display thereby the creator's glory." - Emperor Shah Jahan's description of the Taj Mahal "The Taj Mahal rises above the banks of the river like a solitary tear suspended on the cheek of time." - Rabindranath Tagore, Bengali Nobel Laureate Poet "Rahul had wondered how someone could love their beloved so much that their dedication to them became one of the wonders of the world." - Faraaz Kazi, modern novelist Taj Mahal is Arabic for "crown of palaces", and the name could not be more fitting for one of the most instantly recognizable buildings in the world. Constructed over a span of about 20 years in the mid-17th century as a mausoleum for the wife of Emperor Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal is aptly described by UNESCO, which designated it a World Heritage site, as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage". Indeed, the Taj Mahal is truly a global icon because it masterfully fused the artistic and architectural elements of several cultures, including Indian, Ottoman, Persian, and Islamic cultures across the region. While the marble dome is the first feature that pops out about the Taj Mahal, the careful layout of the entire structure is also incredibly impressive, and it took thousands of laborers several years to work on the other features, from the gardens to the calligraphy inscribed on the exterior. The Taj Mahal also includes other buildings, including a mosque and other tombs and mausoleums for people close to the emperor. Not surprisingly, given the scope and quality of the work, the Taj Mahal has fascinated people around the world for centuries, and naturally, all sorts of myths about it have sprung up. For the most part, however, people are simply drawn to it today as one of the premiere tourist sites in the world, and millions of people come from around the world to visit it every year. The Taj Mahal: The History of India's Most Famous Monument chronicles the origins, construction, and history of the Taj Mahal over the last 350 years. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about one of the world's most famous memorials like you never have before.

*Includes pictures *Explains how the syllabary works and its influences *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading Tragically, the Cherokee is one of America's best known tribes due to the trials and tribulations they suffered by being forcibly moved west along the "Trail of Tears", but that overlooks the contributions they made to American society well before the 19th century. The Cherokee began the process of assimilation into European America very early, even before the establishment of the Unites States, and by the early 19th century they were one of the "Five Civilized Tribes." Despite all of the hostilities and the Trail of Tears, the Cherokee ultimately became the first people of non-European descent to become U.S. citizens en masse, and today the Cherokee Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United States, boasting over 300,000 members. The Cherokee might be the most famous tribe in the country, and if so, the person most responsible for it is Sequoyah, whose invention of the Cherokee syllabary also played a prominent role in facilitating the assimilation between the Cherokee and Americans. Sequoyah began work on devising the writing and reading system around 1809, and it was instantly popular among the Cherokee, to the extent that it was being used in written publications among the tribe by the 1820s. The syllabary has been in use ever since, both within the tribe and among outsiders. Thanks to his accomplishments, Sequoyah was celebrated in his own lifetime, but due to his obscure roots, accounts of his early years still vary dramatically. Sequoyah: The Life and Legacy of the Most Famous Cherokee looks at the life and work of the man who put the Cherokee language down in print and made it possible for outsiders to both read and write it. This includes analyzing the nature of his invention, the social context in which he lived, and the ongoing legacy he has left for the modern Cherokee. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Sequoyah like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures of the sites and depictions of important people and events. *Explains the history of the sites and the theories about their purpose. *Describes the layout of the ancient cities, their important structures, and the theories about the buildings' uses. *Includes footnotes and bibliographies for further reading. Chichen Itza was inhabited for hundreds of years and was a very influential center in the later years of Maya civilization. At its height, Chichen Itza may have had over 30,000 inhabitants, and with a spectacular pyramid, enormous ball court, observatory and several temples, the builders of this city exceeded even those at Uxmal in developing the use of columns and exterior relief decoration. Of particular interest at Chichen Itza is the sacred cenote, a sinkhole was a focus for Maya rituals around water. Because adequate supplies of water, which rarely collected on the surface of the limestone based Yucatan, were essential for adequate agricultural production, the Maya here considered it of primary importance. Underwater archaeology carried out in the cenote at Chichen Itza revealed that offerings to the Maya rain deity Chaac (which may have included people) were tossed into the sinkhole. Why Maya cities were abandoned and left to be overgrown by the jungle is a puzzle that intrigues people around the world today, especially those who have a penchant for speculating on lost civilizations. In 1911, American historian Hiram Bingham publicized the finding of what at the time was considered a "lost city" of the Inca. Though local inhabitants had known about it for century, Bingham documented and photographed the ruins of a 15th century settlement nestled along a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, placed so perfectly from a defensive standpoint that it's believed the Spanish never conquered it and may have never known about it. Today, of course, Machu Picchu is one of South America's best tourist spots, and the ruins have even been voted one of the Seven New Wonders of the World. But even though Machu Picchu is now the best known of all Incan ruins, its function in Incan civilization is still not clear. Some have speculated that it was an outpost or a frontier citadel, while others believe it to be a sanctuary or a work center for women. Still others suggest that it was a ceremonial center or perhaps even the last refuge of the Incas after the Spanish conquest. One of the most theories to take hold is that Machu Picchu was the summer dwelling of the Inca's royal court, the Inca's version of Versailles. As was the case with the renaming of Mayan and Aztec ruins, the names given to various structures by archaeologists are purely imaginary and thus not very helpful; for example, the mausoleum, palace or watchtower at Machu Picchu may have been nothing of the sort. Mexico City is now easily the largest city in the Western Hemisphere, trailing only Tokyo internationally, but unlike the other great cities of the Americas, Mexico City is not a new place. Mexico City instead has much in common with cities like London, Delhi or Cairo in the East in that it is an ancient city dating back centuries before the arrival of Columbus in Hispaniola. For, while much (including the name) has changed, Mexico City is the mighty Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire and the great American metropolis of the Spanish Empire. There has been no break in occupation, and despite much devastation in the Conquest, the city was never fully destroyed. What the conquistadores encountered in Tenochtitlan was entirely unexpected: one of the world's greatest cities, teeming with over 200,000 people, built on an island on a lake and connected to the shore by a number of long, broad stone causeways. On the water itself were remarkable floating gardens, on surrounding shorelines were sprawling suburbs, and behind them was a dramatic wall of mountain peaks.

*Includes pictures of historic art depicting Hades and other Greek gods. *Explains the historical origins of the god and the mythological tales about him. "The gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears!" - Sophocles The Greek god Hades is something of an enigma. On the one hand, people can view him through the lens that was a byproduct of the Christian tradition, as a terrifying lord of death seated upon his ebony throne, an unseen force of power moving through the world. Certainly, many of the Ancient Greeks themselves saw the god in this light, whispering his name and making sacrifices of black sheep on dark nights and allowing the blood to trickle down into the earth to reach the underworld. On the other hand, there is a parallel Greek tradition that depicts Hades as a regal god and more of a dark parallel to his brother Zeus, who bears the same icons of sovereignty and may have some deep link to him in a primordial sense. The name "Hades" literally means "Unseen", but the Greeks had a superstitious fear of calling Hades by his proper name and thus created numerous ways of referring to the god. For instance, "Euboleus" means "Giver of Good Counsel," and "Polydectes" meant "he who receives many," "Stygeros" means "hateful one," and "Polydegmon" meant either "grey man" or "hospitable one." The most popular name was "Plouton" which means "wealth-giver" and referred to Hades' role in guarding the treasures of the earth. That name was eventually adopted and altered by the Romans to become their god "Pluto." Other names used for the god included Aidoneus, Ais, Clymenus and Pylartes. Given his importance as the lord of the underworld, Hades was a constant presence in Greek life, and descriptions of him, the river Styx, and his three-headed dog Cerberus are all instantly familiar to anyone who has read Greek mythology. At the same time, how did the Greeks attempt to appease Hades? Of particular importance was the division between Olympian gods, gods of the sky and of life, and Chthonic gods, gods of the earth and of death. While Hades was perhaps the best known of the Chthonic gods, the tradition of chthonic deities was much older and broader than him, so it's also useful to compare him to similar deities in other cultures' pantheons. This book explores the figure of Hades, including his origins, the stories told about him, the way he was worshiped and how he is remembered today. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Greek god like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes Spanish accounts of the Aztec's human sacrifices *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading "They strike open the wretched Indian's chest with flint knives and hastily tear out the palpitating heart which, with the blood, they present to the idols...They cut off the arms, thighs and head, eating the arms and thighs at ceremonial banquets. The head they hang up on a beam, and the body is...given to the beasts of prey." - Bernal Diaz, a Spaniard who described the Aztec's human sacrifice From the moment Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés first found and confronted them, the Aztecs have fascinated the world, and they continue to hold a unique place both culturally and in pop culture. Nearly 500 years after the Spanish conquered their mighty empire, the Aztecs are often remembered today for their major capital, Tenochtitlan, as well as being fierce conquerors of the Valley of Mexico who often engaged in human sacrifice rituals. Ironically, and unlike the Mayans, the Aztecs are not widely viewed or remembered with nuance, in part because their own leader burned extant Aztec writings and rewrote a mythologized history explaining his empire's dominance less than a century before the Spanish arrived. While the Mayans are remembered for their astronomy, numeral system, and calendar, the Aztecs have primarily been remembered in a far narrower way, despite continuing to be a source of pride to Mexicans through the centuries. As a result, even though the Aztecs continue to interest people across the world centuries after their demise, it has fallen on archaeologists and historians to try to determine the actual history, culture, and lives of the Aztecs from the beginning to the end, relying on excavations, primary accounts, and more. That said, more is known about Aztec religious practices than any other aspect of their culture, mostly because the major element in the public ceremonies was focused on human sacrifice. The rituals were apparently so gruesome that they horrified even the Spanish, who were not exactly known for their gentility when it came to war and religious fervor. A Spaniard named Bernal Diaz described what happened at one religious ceremony: "They have a most horrid and abominable custom which truly ought to be punished and which until now we have seen in no other part, and this is that, whenever they wish to ask something of the idols, in order that their plea may find more acceptance, they take many girls and boys and even adults, and in the presence of these idols they open their chests while they are still alive and take out their hearts and entrails and burn them before the idols, offering the smoke as sacrifice. Some of us have seen this, and they say it is the most terrible and frightful thing they have ever witnessed." Naturally, Cortés and other Spaniards depicted the Aztecs as savages greatly in need of conversion to Catholicism. The Spanish used the Aztec's religious practices as a justification for Cortés' conquest, but even though the Spanish attempted to burn as much as they could, plenty of information about Aztec mythology also survived. The Mythology and Religion of the Aztec examines the history and legacy of the religion practiced by the famous Mesoamerican empire. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Aztec religion and mythology like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes descriptions of the ruins and the history of the sites *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century. The Greeks and Romans continue to fascinate the West today. But of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. In 2012 especially, there was a renewed focus on the Mayans, whose advanced calendar has led many to speculate the world would end on the same date the Mayan calendar ends, but if anything, the focus on the "doomsday" scenario overshadowed the Mayans' true contribution to astronomy, language, sports, and art. The Maya maintained power in the Yucatan for over a thousand years, and at the height of its "Classical era" (3rd-9th centuries A.D.), the city of Tikal was one of the power centers of the empire. Archaeologists believe Tikal had been built as early as the 5th or 4th century BC, and eventually it became a political, economic and military capital that was an important part of a far-flung network across Mesoamerica, despite the fact it was seemingly conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD. It seems the foreign rulers came to assimilate Mayan culture, thus ensuring Tikal would continue to be a power base, and as a result, the city would not be abandoned until about the 10th century AD. As one of the Ancient Maya's most important sites, construction at Tikal was impressive, and even though it was apparently conquered, the city's records were unusually well preserved. This includes a list of the city's dynastic rulers, as well as the tombs and monuments dedicated to them. Thanks to this preservation, Tikal offers researchers their best look at the Ancient Maya and has gone a long way toward helping scholars understand Mayan history. Near the end of the Classic Era, the city of Uxmal was one of the Maya's most noteworthy cities and a capital after Tikal waned. While it was not as powerful as cities like Tikal, Uxmal was apparently at the forefront of Mayan culture, particularly when it came to architecture. However, while Uxmal used high ground to display its prominence, and the ruins are still among the most popular places for tourists in the region, the site is still shrouded in mystery. Even as scholars continue to work on the site to further interpret it, it's still unclear when exactly Uxmal was founded, how many people called it home, and when it was abandoned, despite the existence of Mayan chronicles and oral legends. What is apparent, however, is the skills of Uxmal's artisans, whether through constructing structures like the 5 level Pyramid of Magicians and the expansive Governor's Palace or adorning the structures with precisely detailed art and sculptures. In fact, the craftsmanship can be credited with helping to preserve Uxmal itself. Tikal and Uxmal: The History and Legacy of the Mayan Capitals of the Classic Era covers the history of the cities, as well as the speculation and debate surrounding them. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Tikal and Uxmal like never before.

*Includes pictures of important places and historic illustrations and art depicting Thor and other important Norse figures. *Explains the historical origins of the god, the mythological tales about him, and the literary evolution of Thor. *Includes a Bibliography for further reading. "Across the rainbow bridge of Asgard, Where the Booming Heavens Roar, You'll behold in breathless wonder, the God of Thunder, Mighty Thor!" - Theme Song from the television show Mighty Thor (1966) "In swelling rage then rose up Thor, -- Seldom he sits when he such things hears, -- And the oaths were broken, the words and bonds, The mighty pledges between them made." - Voluspa Line #26 from the Poetic Edda A hammer no mortal can lift. A flame-haired fiery storm god. A comic book alien-hero-god who defends humanity. The swastika. Even the name "Thursday" ("Thor's Day"). Despite the virtual disappearance of the indigenous Norse religion and mythology several centuries ago, modern society still regularly encounters the storm god Thor, who continues to be brought back to life in the form of literature and was recently the protagonist in a big-budget Hollywood movie. What is it about this god, out of the hundreds (if not thousands) of deities that were consigned to the dustbin of history by the world's major religions, that so captures people's imaginations today? A better understanding of Thor's appeal can be found in just about every aspect of the history and evolution of the figure over the centuries, including the origins of the god, the evocative imagery used to describe him, and even the parallels between Thor and similar gods and heroes. All of this has been buffeted by literature, such as the stories about Thor found in the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda, and the connection societies have had with Thor for hundreds of years, even up until today. This work also examines the decline and displacement of Norse mythology by Christianity, the reasons why Thor was often the last god worshiped by the Norse, and today's remnants of Thorism, including his parallels in other faiths, his role in revived Neo-Heathenism and his appearance in other media as a hero in comics and films. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Thor like you never have before, in no time at all.

Diferentes ramas de la misma religión son la excepción más que la regla, y han tenido un profundo impacto en la historia. El cisma entre las iglesias ortodoxa y católica influyó en las relaciones entre las naciones de toda Europa, y la intolerancia religiosa basada en diferentes creencias cristianas llevó a la persecución y la violencia por todo el continente durante siglos. La Reforma Protestante dividió el cristianismo aún más, y los resultados culminaron en la increíblemente destructiva Guerra de los Treinta Años en el siglo XVII. Hoy, la división religiosa más importante es entre los sunitas y los chiíes (chiítas) dentro del Islam. A diferencia de las divisiones en otras religiones (entre judíos conservadores y ortodoxos o católicos y cristianos protestantes) la división entre los sunitas y los chiíes ha existido desde hace tanto como la propia fe, y surgió rápidamente de las tensiones creadas por la crisis política después de la muerte del Profeta Mahoma. En cierto sentido, lo que ahora son dos formas diferentes de Islam inicialmente comenzó como facciones políticas dentro del cuerpo unificado de creyentes musulmanes. En los últimos siglos, los cristianos han sido en su mayoría capaces de vivir junto a sus correligionarios, pero la división entre los sunitas y los chiíes es todavía tan pronunciada que muchos adherentes de cada rama se ven con desdén o incluso como apóstatas o no creyentes La división religiosa es quizás la línea de falla más importante en el turbulento Medio Oriente de hoy, con naciones sunitas como Egipto y Arabia Saudita en desacuerdo con naciones chiíes como Irán. En niveles inferiores, grupos no estatales como el Estado Islámico y Hezbollah están luchando entre sí en formas que cruzan líneas estatales en lugares como Líbano, Irak y Siria. Aunque técnicamente es una división en la religión, la división ha tenido ramificaciones globales sustanciales durante décadas, y parece que no hay fin a la vista. La historia de la división suní y chií traza los orígenes de la división y los efectos históricos de la división principal dentro del Islam. Junto con fotos de personas importantes, lugares y eventos, aprenderás sobre la historia de los sunitas y chiíes como nunca antes, en muy poco tiempo.

*Includes pictures *Details the history, climate, and geography of the region and the culture of its indigenous peoples *Includes footnotes, online resources and a bibliography for further reading *Includes a table of contents "Have you heard of the illness hysteria siberiana? Try to imagine this: You're a farmer, living all alone on the Siberian tundra. Day after day you plow your fields. As far as the eye can see, nothing. To the north, the horizon, to the east, the horizon, to the south, to the west, more of the same. Every morning, when the sun rises in the east, you go out to work in your fields. When it's directly overhead, you take a break for lunch. When it sinks in the west, you go home to sleep. And then one day, something inside you dies. Day after day you watch the sun rise in the east, pass across the sky, then sink in the west, and something breaks inside you and dies. You toss your plow aside and, your head completely empty of thought, begin walking toward the west. Heading toward a land that lies west of the sun. Like someone, possessed, you walk on, day after day, not eating or drinking, until you collapse on the ground and die. That's hysteria siberiana." - Haruki Murakami, South of the Border, West of the Sun Although Russia has long been considered part of Europe, it has always had a culture so distinct and a history so different that it is still foreign to Western Europe in many ways. Naturally, this sense of otherness has lent an aura of intrigue and mystique to Russia as people have struggled to understand it. Over the long course of Russian history, perhaps no aspect of the giant country has generated interest quite like Siberia, the easternmost part of Russia that lies in Asia. Generally speaking, all that is widely known about Siberia is that it is really big and really cold, which, to be fair, are good starting points for a deeper exploration of this fascinating region. The name "Siberia" comes to English from Russian and was originally from the word "Sibir", a fortress of the Tatar people which was located on the Tobol and Irtysh Rivers . However, it referred more generally to the Khanate of Sibir, the land just east of the Urals that served as the gateway to a network of rivers that stretched all the way to the Pacific in the far east. Hence, it eventually gave its name to that entire region. Despite making up nearly 66% of the country, Siberia is only inhabited by 40 million people, making it one of the most sparsely populated places on the planet. Given its brutal climate and the strategic depth offered by the region, it should perhaps come as no surprise that the region is best known today for being the location where political prisoners were sent to the infamous Russian labor camps. Siberia: The History of Russia's Most Notorious Territory and Home of the Soviet Gulags details the history of Siberia over the centuries. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Siberia like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes historical accounts describing the site *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Tiahuanaco is not a very large village, but it is celebrated for the great edifices near it, which are certainly things worth seeing. Near the buildings there is a hill made by the hands of men, on great foundations of stone. Beyond this hill there are two stone idols, of the human shape and figure, the features very skillfully carved, so that they appear to have been done by the hand of some great master. They are so large that they seem like small giants, and it is clear that they have on a sort of clothing different from those now worn by the natives of these parts." - Cieza de Léon, 1883 Few ancient ruins capture the imagination like the mighty holy site of Tiwanaku, located on the high Andean altiplano plateau outside of La Paz, Bolivia. Unlike some ancient sites, such as Machu Picchu in neighboring Peru or Chichen Itzá in Mexico, Tiwanaku has never been "lost"; on the contrary, it has been marveled over for centuries by Incan nobles, Spanish Conquistadores, modern backpackers, and UFO fanatics alike. Despite this history of amazement, Tiwanaku has remained something of an enigma until recently, but it appears that this would have probably been pleasing to its creators. It was created to be a mysterious, sacred, and beautiful place, one with many secrets and a public face characterized by PT Barnum-like showmanship. Skillful modern archaeology has allowed people to look behind the facade and see, for the first time in many, many centuries, some of the secrets behind it. The story is fascinating, complex, and thoroughly human. The modern visitor arriving to Tiahuanaco finds him or herself in, as Cieza de Léon noted almost 130 years ago, a not very notable, dusty, chilly settlement south of Lake Titicaca. The place would not be of any great interest except that to the east and south of the modern village, within walking distance of the center, rise a number of remarkable ruins. The eastern complex is the larger of the two and encompasses the ceremonial heart of the ancient settlement, including the massive Akapana Pyramid, the Kalasaya Temple, and the famed Puerta del Sol (Gate of the Sun). Visitors typically pose before this remarkable gateway, carved out of a single 10-ton block of andesite and decorated with elaborate carvings, including a curious figure in the center of a man bearing two rods or staffs in its hands. Visitors leaving this central complex travel south - perhaps stopping at the Ceramic Museum, containing typical works of red and white geometric and zoomorphic images on red earthenware - to the southern complex, centered on the famed ruins of Puma Punku. While this typically makes up the entirety of a visitor's time in the ruins, what is often overlooked is that these ceremonial buildings were surrounded by a vast array of lesser structures, many of which appear to have been cannibalized for their stone to build the modern town, especially the church of San Pedro in the main square (Bolivia es Turismo 2016). Beyond this was an impressive system of aqueducts and irrigation, broad expanses of carefully controlled fields, outlying settlements, and a vast network of dependent, conquered territories. Together they make up the political, spiritual, economic, and artistic world which today is called "Tiwanaku," a place, empire, and cultural tradition that is the focus of this text. Tiwanaku: The History and Legacy of the Ancient Pre-Colombian Site in the Heart of the Andes chronicles the history and archaeology of the famous site. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Tiwanaku like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes a description of the ruins and analysis of them *Explains the history of the rise and fall of the city *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century. The Greeks and Romans continue to fascinate the West today. But of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. In 2012 especially, there was a renewed focus on the Mayans, whose advanced calendar has led many to speculate the world would end on the same date the Mayan calendar ends, but if anything, the focus on the "doomsday" scenario overshadowed the Mayans' true contribution to astronomy, language, sports, and art. The Maya maintained power in the Yucatan for over a thousand years, and in the late stages of the "Classical" era (3rd-9th centuries AD), the city of Uxmal was one of its most noteworthy places. While it was not as powerful as cities like Tikal, Uxmal was apparently at the forefront of Mayan culture, particularly when it came to architecture. However, while Uxmal used high ground to display its prominence, and the ruins are still among the most popular places for tourists in the region, the site is still shrouded in mystery. Even as scholars continue to work on the site to further interpret it, it's still unclear when exactly Uxmal was founded, how many people called it home, and when it was abandoned, despite the existence of Mayan chronicles and oral legends. What is apparent, however, is the skills of Uxmal's artisans, whether through constructing structures like the 5 level Pyramid of Magicians and the expansive Governor's Palace or adorning the structures with precisely detailed art and sculptures. In fact, the craftsmanship can be credited with helping to preserve Uxmal itself. Uxmal: The History of the Ancient Mayan City covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation and debate surrounding it. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Uxmal like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes a table of contents King Arthur is one of the most famous names in history, and his name still evokes visions of fantasy, chivalry, bravery, and more even today. Arthur remains a pop culture fixture around the globe, made famous in various Arthurian tales written by writers like Chretien de Troyes. Arthur came to embody the ideals of the Middle Ages: strength, chivalry, bravery, and more. Along the way, his Excalibur sword, the Holy Grail, his queen, and more have all become household words. Arthur has long been identified as a folk hero, and there are countless tales that comprise the Arthurian legend, but was there an actual person that the original stories were based on? People still search for the seeds of truth in the Knights of the Round Table, and the historical figure that inspired the Arthurian tales. Of course, as with all great myths, and even those with a kernel of truth behind them, there is no "real" Arthur. Arthur is now comprised of the works written by diverse storytellers, most of which have built upon the ancient stories and possibly history. It is from there that a primordial seed of myth remains at the heart of all the retellings. At the same time, Arthur's story is one of transformation, as he is brought from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance and more modern times. And that story also includes the famous contemporaries in his stories and other important historical figures, like Geoffrey of Monmouth, the imprisoned Sir Thomas Mallory and Walt Disney. When looking for the historical and mythical Arthur, scholars try to understand how the Arthur of these tales and of others like Disney's Sword in the Stone and Monty Python and the Holy Grail came to be. What are the origins of the Arthur legend and what can they tell people about the past? What is the historical basis for King Arthur, if any? There are few characters in the English language more iconic than Robin Hood. Emerging out of the ballads of the High Middle Ages and surviving through numerous permutations to the present day, the green-clad archer has become an icon. Today he represents a playful, irreverent and cunning resistance to corruption and injustice, associated primarily with stealing from the rich and giving to the poor. Robin Hood's selfless acts of helping the masses at the expense of himself (by not keeping his treasure) have led to contemporary figures like Bill Gates being called "Modern Day Robin Hoods", and when a British man robbed a bank in 2013 and handed out the money to homeless people before he was arrested and imprisoned, the name Robin Hood was naturally in the news once more. Robin Hood is a celebrated folk hero and a kind of good thief, but the earliest stories about Robin Hood depict a far different character. The first Robin Hood was often a brutal and selfish yet also honorable figure, an anti-hero loved (perhaps paradoxically) by many social classes and loathed by authorities. When the notorious Gunpowder Plot was discovered at the beginning of the 17th century, the Earl of Salisbury condemned Guy Fawkes and the conspirators for being "Robin Hoods". The transformation of Robin Hood over the centuries has left many scholars attempting to find the origins behind the original story. Like King Arthur, some have even sought a historical figure that might serve as the basis for Robin Hood, while others have sought out mythological origins to see if Robin Hood's character evolved out of a mythological figure. When looking for the historical and mythical figure, scholars try to understand how the Robin Hood of these tales and came to be. What are the origins of Robin Hood and what can they tell people about the past? What is the historical basis for Robin Hood, if any?

*Includes pictures *Profiles the history of the site and the theories about its purpose *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading *Includes a table of contents The ancient world often evokes wonder, respect and even confusion, and few places accomplish any of that more than the incredible ruined stone temple of Puma Punku. Part of the larger ruined city of Tiwanaku in the altiplano plains of modern Bolivia, Puma Punku is a marvel of engineering, stonemasonry and design. These facts are obvious to even the lay observer, as Puma Punku's stonework is remarkable even for the Andes where visitors have long wondered at ancient stone joints where even a knife bade could not fit between the stones. This level of craftsmanship has caused some, mostly those who have never been to the Andes, to speculate of a fanciful origin for the site, maintaining that such a wonderful and mysterious place must be the work of extraterrestrial or super-human forces. However, Puma Punku's stonemasonry is often considered its most notable feature only because until recently so little was known about the site or the Tiwanaku culture that built it. This would be like visiting the ruins of the Vatican or Westminster Abbey centuries from now and being wowed by the quality of construction. While the construction is impressive, that aspect is not the most interesting story that the sites can tell. Today, through the diligent work of scholars from many countries, the disciplines of archaeology, art history, comparative ethnography and other modern historical sciences have begun to peel back the story of Puma Punku, and historians can once again begin to tell the stories behind the stones. That work has highlighted the enigmatic ruins from many points of view, and have helped explain how it was a place of ritual, showmanship, mythology and, of course, the finest workmanship. Puma Punku: The History of Tiwanaku's Spectacular Temple of the Sun examines one of the most important pre-Columbian sites in South America. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Puma Punku like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures of important places and historic illustrations and art depicting Odin and other important Norse figures. *Explains the historical origins of the god, the mythological tales about him, and the religious evolution of Odin. *Includes a Bibliography for further reading. A one-eyed old man, with a gray cloak and a wide-brimmed hat leaning on a staff. A wanderer who appears when least expected, bringing triumph or doom. The god of prophecy, poetry and fate. A shapechanger. A sorcerer. The god Odin cuts a dramatic figure in Norse mythology and is still a part of the popular imagination. He is the inspiration for figures like J.R.R. Tolkien's Gandalf the Grey, and he still appears in modern literature as varied as Marvel Comics and Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods (2001). Alongside his son Thor, Odin is one of the best known Norse gods, and it's often easy to forget that he was once at the heart of a pantheon devoutly worshiped by millions of Europeans in the Middle Ages. Odin has numerous names and titles (over 200 by one account), but his best known title is "The All-Father," the co-creator of Earth ("Midgard"), humanity and all of the creatures that inhabitant this world. He is also, importantly, the god of prophecy, ecstasy, and poetry, all roles that were closely connected in the Norse world. Odin was a god of life and death as well, and was famous for taking the souls of warriors who died in combat back to his realm of Valhalla. This role was tied to his position as a god of war, a position that does not perhaps seem obvious to a modern reader for a god of knowledge and wisdom. However, Odin was the king of the gods and the master of Asgard; therefore, in the Norse understanding, one of his crucial tasks was the defense of that realm through military might if necessary. His living followers would call upon him in battle, and he was said to have taken champions and even led human armies to triumph. It is useful to compare Odin to two other prominent deities: Thor and Zeus. Thor, Odin's son, was a fellow Norse war god, and Zeus was a fellow king god. Yet in both cases, Odin differs greatly from these gods. He was more enigmatic, and his power is more indirect and subtle. Odin was a god of mysteries, of discovering hidden knowledge, and while he was mighty in battle, the stories where he shines are those where takes unassuming forms and gets others to divulge information that might not otherwise give. This differs from the other two gods' temperamental natures and their pride. Odin was always a god that plotted many steps ahead, was willing to make extreme short-term sacrifices to further his plans, and continuously worked to bend the nature of his fate. This book explores the figure of Odin, including his origins, the stories told about him, the way he was worshiped and what fragments and memories of him have survived into the modern era. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Odin like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Describes the history and archaeology at each site *Includes a bibliography for further reading Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century, like the Greeks and the Romans, but of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. At the heart of the fascination is the most visited and the most spectacular of Late Classic Maya cities: Chichén Itzá. Chichén Itzá was inhabited for hundreds of years and was a very influential center in the later years of Maya civilization. At its height, Chichén Itzá may have had over 30,000 inhabitants, and with a spectacular pyramid, enormous ball court, observatory and several temples, the builders of this city exceeded even those at Uxmal in developing the use of columns and exterior relief decoration. Of particular interest at Chichén Itzá is the sacred cenote, a sinkhole was a focus for Maya rituals around water. Because adequate supplies of water, which rarely collected on the surface of the limestone based Yucatan, were essential for adequate agricultural production, the Maya here considered it of primary importance. Underwater archaeology carried out in the cenote at Chichén Itzá revealed that offerings to the Maya rain deity Chaac (which may have included people) were tossed into the sinkhole. Early Mayapán was closely connected to the overshadowing power of the region at the time: the mighty trading city of Chichén Itzá. Mayapán emerged first as a minor settlement in the orbit of Chichén, but it slowly came to replace it after the larger city's trade connections with the Toltecs of Tula crumbled and it suffered a staggering defeat by Mayapán's armies. The building styles and art in their city show both admiring references to the great Chichén Itzá as well as an attempt to position Mayapán as a more orthodox heir of Maya tradition. At the same time, they emulated many features and could not escape the tremendous influences - especially in religion - of Chichén. This is seen in the fact that many of the most important buildings in the new city appear to be small-scale reproductions of ones in Chichén. The Maya maintained power in the Yucatan for over a thousand years, and at the height of its "Classical era" (3rd-9th centuries CE), the city of Tikal was one of the power centers of the empire. Archaeologists believe Tikal had been built as early as the 5th or 4th century BC, and eventually it became a political, economic and military capital that was an important part of a far-flung network across Mesoamerica, despite the fact it was seemingly conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century CE. It seems the foreign rulers came to assimilate Mayan culture, thus ensuring Tikal would continue to be a power base, and as a result, the city would not be abandoned until about the 10th century CE. During the Maya's Classical era, the city of Uxmal was one of its most noteworthy places. While it was not as powerful as cities like Tikal, Uxmal was apparently at the forefront of Mayan culture, particularly when it came to architecture. However, while Uxmal used high ground to display its prominence, and the ruins are still among the most popular places for tourists in the region, the site is still shrouded in mystery. Even as scholars continue to work on the site to further interpret it, it's still unclear when exactly Uxmal was founded, how many people called it home, and when it was abandoned, despite the existence of Mayan chronicles and oral legends. What is apparent, however, is the skills of Uxmal's artisans, whether through constructing structures like the five-level Pyramid of Magicians and the expansive Governor's Palace or adorning the structures with precisely detailed art and sculptures. In fact, the craftsmanship can be credited with helping to preserve Uxmal itself.

*Includes pictures. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. When the Spanish came into contact with different tribes in the Southwest, they were so intrigued by the structure of the communities that they gave the natives the name Pueblo, a term they used to measure certain sizes for their own settlements.. Thus, while most Americans have heard of the Pueblo and Navajo, many remain unfamiliar with distinctions within the tribes. The Spaniards' interest was understandable, because the Pueblo fascinated those who came across their settlements, especially those located in desert regions and the sides of cliffs that involved the use of adobe mud, stone, carving homes out of cliffs. One such settlement, Oraibi, was created around 1100 A.D. and remains one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements in North America, but the most famous of the cliff dwellings can be found at Mesa Verde, which was turned into a national park in the early 20th century, about 1500 years after the Ancient Pueblo established the settlement. Today's Puebloan tribes are descended from tribes known as the "Ancestral Puebloan People", one of which was the Anasazi, but anthropologists believe that the Anasazi were a common ancestor of every Pueblo group, so the Ancient Pueblo are often referred to simply as the Anasazi. The name Anasazi came from their enemies; it is a Navajo word that means "enemy ancestor". While that name understandably continues to offend the descendants of the Anasazi, it also underscores that there is still a lot of uncertainty regarding the history of the Anasazi. In fact, it is still unclear what the Anasazi called themselves, and though they resided near the "Four Corners" area of Utah, Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico for more than 700 years, they mysteriously abandoned their settlements shortly after they truly began to flourish around 1050-1150 A.D. Despite the mystery surrounding the Anasazi, it's widely agreed that they occupied Mesa Verde and its unique structures for a period of nearly 700 years, beginning as early as the 7th century. Thanks to its occupants taking advantage of the surrounding geologic formations, Mesa Verde is an amazing collection of cliff dwellings, as well as houses that utilize caves and rock overhangs, and structures consisting of adobe and sandstone. Unfortunately, the natural conditions that make Mesa Verde so special also likely played a role in its abandonment, with overpopulation and drought forcing inhabitants out near the end of the 13th century. Mesa Verde: The History of the Ancient Pueblo Settlement covers the establishment of Mesa Verde from its origins until its establishment as a national park. Along with pictures, footnotes, and a bibliography, you will learn about Mesa Verde like never before.

"Al otro lado del puente de arcoiris de Asgard, Donde retumba el rugido de los cielos, En maravillado asombro contemplarán, Al dios del trueno, poderoso Thor!" - Tema musical del programa de televisión Mighty Thor (1966) "Sólo Thor luchó allí con furor terrible, Nunca reposa cuando ve estas cosas; Se han roto juramentos, palabras y promesas, Los firmes acuerdos que entre ellos había..." - Völuspá Línea #26 de la Edda Poética (o Edda Mayor) Un martillo que ningún mortal puede levantar. Un flamante dios de la tormenta, con cabello cual llamas. Un héroe-dios-alienígena que defiende a la humanidad. La esvástica. Incluso el nombre Thursday [jueves en inglés] es "Thor's Day" [el día de Thor]. A pesar de la virtual desaparición de la religión autóctona y mitología nórdica siglos atrás, aún se encuentra con regularidad en la sociedad moderna al dios de la tormenta, Thor, quien continúa siendo traído de vuelta a la vida en forma de literatura y más recientemente, como protagonista de películas taquilleras de Hollywood. ¿Qué tiene en particular este dios, entre los cientos (si no miles) de deidades que fueron arrojadas al basurero de la historia por las grandes religiones del mundo, que captura de tal manera la imaginación de las personas hasta el día de hoy? Una mejor comprensión del atractivo de Thor puede hallarse prácticamente en cualquiera de los aspectos de la historia y evolución de esta figura a lo largo de los siglos, incluyendo los orígenes del dios, las imágenes evocativas con las que es descrito, e incluso los paralelismos entre Thor y otros dioses y héroes similares. Todo esto ha sido alimentado por la literatura, como las historias sobre Thor encontradas en la Edda Mayor o poética y la Edda Menor o prosaica, así como la conexión que las sociedades han tenido con Thor por cientos de años, incluso hoy en día. El presente trabajo también examina el declive y desplazamiento de la mitología escandinava/nórdica por parte del Cristianismo, las razones por las que Thor fue a menudo el último dios que adoraron los nórdicos y los vestigios actuales del "Thorismo", incluyendo los paralelos con otras fes, su rol en el renacimiento de un Neo-paganismo y su aparición en otros medios como un héroe de historietas y películas. En conjunto con fotografías y bibliografía, aprenderás sobre Thor como nunca antes, y en nada de tiempo.

*Includes pictures *Includes excerpts of the Popol Vuh *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century. The Greeks and Romans continue to fascinate the West today. But of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. In 2012 especially, there was a renewed focus on the Mayans, whose advanced calendar led many to speculate the world would end on the same date the Mayan calendar ends. The focus on the "doomsday" scenario, however, overshadowed the Mayans' true contribution to astronomy, language, sports, and art. Unlike most of the world's sacred books - the Quran, the Bible or the I-Ching for example - nobody knows the universal name, if there ever was one, for the Maya's collection of myths. Instead, the title that has been passed down, the "Popol Vuh," appears to be the specific title given to a particular copy of these tales. Its meaning, roughly translated as the Council Book, refers to the special role of this text: it was the shared property of the council of lords that ruled the Quiché kingdom and was apparently regularly consulted by that body for advice to guide their rule. However, in the opening sections, the scribes who penned the text also give it several other names, including "the Light That Came from Beside the Sea," "Our Place in the Shadows" and "The Dawn of Life" (pg 63). All of these names were originally in K'ichean Maya, the language spoken by the Maya of the Quiché Kingdom and its neighboring regions. The first of these names refers to a pilgrimage by the second generation of Quiché lords in Part V to the Yucatan coast to acquire a copy of at least a portion of the original text. The second refers to Part IV, the period before the first Dawn (the "Shadows") when the ancestral Quiché earned their particular right to rule. The final name refers to Part I, when the first gods created all of the various parts of life. This multiplicity of names and titles for sacred works is not uncommon, and perhaps comparable to the Bible being referred to as "the Good Book" or (in reference to the New Testament) "the Good News" or the "Gospel." The name Popol Vuh is itself controversial as the original text actually spells the name three different ways: "Popol Vuh", of course, but also "Pop Wuj" and "Popol Wuj." In general, the most correct form in contemporary Quiche spelling is probably "Popol Wuj", but as the text is best known in English with the word "Vuh", this convention will be maintained here (Eenriik 2014). There are a number of translations and editions of the Popol Vuh, which vary considerably in quality. Many early editions were not informed by the latest scholarship in Maya linguistics and sometimes the ways they translate names in particular can vary. This text will use the Second Edition (1996), translated by Dennis Tedlock and published by Simon and Schuster, for all of its quotations and page citations. The Popol Vuh: The History and Legacy of the Maya's Creation Myth and Epic Legends examines what's contained within and how the Popol Vuh survived to the present day. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about the Popol Vuh like never before.

En 1911, el historiador estadounidense Hiram Bingham publicó el hallazgo de lo que en aquel momento era considerado una "ciudad perdida" inca. Aunque los habitantes locales ya la conocían desde hacía un siglo, Bingham documentó y fotografió las ruinas de un asentamiento del siglo XV establecido a lo largo de una cresta montañosa sobre el valle de Urubamba en Perú, colocado tan perfectamente desde un punto de vista defensivo que se cree que los españoles nunca lo conquistaron y puede que nunca lo conocieran. Hoy en día, por supuesto, Machu Picchu es uno de los mejores puntos turísticos de América del Sur, y las ruinas han sido incluso votadas como una de las Siete Nuevas Maravillas del Mundo. Pero a pesar de que Machu Picchu es ahora la más conocida de todas las ruinas incas, su función en la civilización inca aún no está clara. Algunos han especulado que era un puesto de avanzada o una ciudadela fronteriza, mientras que otros creen que es un santuario o un centro de trabajo para las mujeres. Otros sugieren que era un centro ceremonial o tal vez el último refugio de los incas después de la conquista española. Una de las teorías a tener en cuenta es que Machu Picchu era la vivienda de verano de la corte real de los incas, la versión inca de Versalles. Como sucedió con el cambio de nombre de las ruinas mayas y aztecas, los nombres dados a diversas estructuras por los arqueólogos son puramente imaginarios y por lo tanto no muy útiles; por ejemplo, el mausoleo, el palacio o la torre de vigilancia en Machu Picchu puede que no hubieran sido nada de eso. Lo que está claro en Machu Picchu es que el plan urbano y las técnicas de construcción empleadas seguían a los de otros asentamientos incas, particularmente la capital de Cuzco. La ubicación de las plazas y el uso inteligente de las irregularidades de la tierra, junto con la estética muy desarrollada involucrada en el trabajo de mampostería, siguió el modelo de la capital inca. En Machu Picchu, la típica técnica inca de ensamblar meticulosamente la sillería y crear muros de bloques sin un material aglutinante es sorprendente. A veces los bloques son cuadrados uniformemente y algunas veces son de forma variable. En este último caso, la conexión muy estrecha entre los bloques de piedra parece bastante notable. Aún más asombroso que el corte de piedra preciso de los incas es el método que utilizaron para el transporte y movimiento de estos bloques enormes. Los incas no tenían la rueda, así que todo el trabajo se realizó usando rodillos y palancas. Machu Picchu: la historia y el misterio de la ciudad inca cubre de manera integral la historia de la ciudad, así como la especulación sobre el propósito de Machu Picchu y el debate sobre los edificios. Junto con imágenes y una bibliografía, aprenderás sobre Machu Picchu como nunca antes, en nada de tiempo.

Diferentes ramificações da mesma religião constituem mais uma exceção do que uma regra e tiveram um impacto profundo na história. O cisma entre as Igrejas Ortodoxa e Católica influenciou as relações entre nações por toda a Europa e, a intolerância religiosa baseada em diferentes fés cristãs levou a perseguições e total violência por todo o continente durante séculos. A Reforma Protestante separou ainda mais o Cristianismo e os resultados culminaram na incrivelmente destrutiva Guerra dos Trinta Anos no século XVII. Atualmente, a separação religiosa mais importante é entre Sunitas e Xiitas no seio do Islão. Contrariamente a outras divisões de fé - entre Judeus Conservadores e Ortodoxos ou Cristãos Católicos e Protestantes -, a separação entre os Sunitas e Xiitas tem existido ao longo quase da própria fé e, rapidamente emergiu de tensões criadas por crises políticas após a morte do profeta Maomé. De certo modo, as diferentes formas do Islão que existem agora, surgiram essencialmente de fações políticas no seio da unidade de crentes muçulmanos. Ao longo de muitos séculos, os Cristãos têm praticamente conseguido viver ao lado dos seus correligiosos, mas a separação entre Sunitas e Xiitas é ainda tão pronunciada que muitos aderentes de cada ramificação veem-se mutuamente com desprezo, se não como apóstatas ou não crentes. A divisão religiosa é por ventura a mais importante descontinuidade no turbulento Médio Oriente de hoje, com nações Sunitas como o Egito e Arábia Saudita em desacordo com nações Xiitas como o Irão. A níveis mais baixos, grupos não-estatais como o Estado Islâmico e o Hezbollah estão a combaterem entre si de uma forma que atravessa fronteiras estatais, em lugares como o Líbano, o Iraque e a Síria. Apesar de ser tecnicamente uma separação na religião, a divisão tem tido ramificações substanciais e globais por décadas e parece que não há um fim à vista. A História da Separação entre Sunitas e Xiitas traça as origens da separação e os históricos esforços da maior divisão no seio do Islão. Juntamente com imagens de pessoas importantes, lugares e eventos, o leitor irá aprender acerca da história dos Sunitas e Xiitas como nunca dantes, em muito pouco tempo.

*Includes pictures *Includes a bibliography for further reading Few ancient ruins capture the imagination like the mighty holy site of Tiwanaku, located on the high Andean altiplano plateau outside of La Paz, Bolivia. Unlike some ancient sites, such as Machu Picchu in neighboring Peru or Chichen Itzá in Mexico, Tiwanaku has never been "lost"; on the contrary, it has been marveled over for centuries by Incan nobles, Spanish Conquistadores, modern backpackers, and UFO fanatics alike. Despite this history of amazement, Tiwanaku has remained something of an enigma until recently, but it appears that this would have probably been pleasing to its creators. It was created to be a mysterious, sacred, and beautiful place, one with many secrets and a public face characterized by PT Barnum-like showmanship. Skillful modern archaeology has allowed people to look behind the facade and see, for the first time in many, many centuries, some of the secrets behind it. The story is fascinating, complex, and thoroughly human. The modern visitor arriving to Tiahuanaco finds him or herself in, as Cieza de Léon noted almost 130 years ago, a not very notable, dusty, chilly settlement south of Lake Titicaca. The place would not be of any great interest except that to the east and south of the modern village, within walking distance of the center, rise a number of remarkable ruins. The ancient world often evokes wonder, respect and even confusion, and few places accomplish any of that more than the incredible ruined stone temple of Puma Punku. Part of the larger ruined city of Tiwanaku in the altiplano plains of modern Bolivia, Puma Punku is a marvel of engineering, stonemasonry and design. These facts are obvious to even the lay observer, as Puma Punku's stonework is remarkable even for the Andes where visitors have long wondered at ancient stone joints where even a knife bade could not fit between the stones. This level of craftsmanship has caused some, mostly those who have never been to the Andes, to speculate of a fanciful origin for the site, maintaining that such a wonderful and mysterious place must be the work of extraterrestrial or super-human forces. However, Puma Punku's stonemasonry is often considered its most notable feature only because until recently so little was known about the site or the Tiwanaku culture that built it. This would be like visiting the ruins of the Vatican or Westminster Abbey centuries from now and being wowed by the quality of construction. While the construction is impressive, that aspect is not the most interesting story that the sites can tell. Today, through the diligent work of scholars from many countries, the disciplines of archaeology, art history, comparative ethnography and other modern historical sciences have begun to peel back the story of Puma Punku, and historians can once again begin to tell the stories behind the stones. That work has highlighted the enigmatic ruins from many points of view, and have helped explain how it was a place of ritual, showmanship, mythology and, of course, the finest workmanship. Tiwanaku and Puma Punku: The History and Legacy of South America's Most Famous Ancient Holy Site examines some of the most important pre-Columbian ruins in the world. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Tiwanaku and Puma Punku like never before.

*Includes pictures *Describes the Tower and the historical events that occurred there *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading The Tower of London is one of the most historic sites in all of England, and still one of the most popular. All around is the modern City of London, one of the world's most prosperous and power financial districts, but the Tower is still a daunting structure that looms across the landscape. Not a single structure but a vast network of medieval and early modern fortifications, it anchors the southeastern end of the old City and controls access to the River Thames and, through it, London's connection to the sea. While the both the City and the Thames are often obscured by the walls once visitors are inside the Tower, they are inextricably tied to the building, giving the Tower its entire reason for existence. Even today, taking a tour of the Tower can seemingly bring its history to life. Inside the visitor center are replicas of a crown, an executioner's axe and similar artifacts, but for most visitors, this is just the start. After they cross a small courtyard and approach the first gate, known as the Middle Tower, they come to a stone bridge over a now-dry moat and enter the castle itself through the Byward Tower. The Tower, like many fortresses of its day, was built in concentric rings, so inside the outer wall is a narrow strip of land before the inner walls. Long, narrow buildings line the inside of the outer wall, and to the left along Mint Street these structures once housed the operation of the Royal Mint, making all of the coins of the realm. From there, most visitors continue straight along, typically guided by one of the colorfully-dressed Yeoman Guards (the famous "Beefeaters"). Under the watch of the Bell Tower, they continue along the south face of the inner wall, on Water Lane, and just ahead is the famed Traitor's Gate; while today the area around here is paved and dry, in earlier times this was a "watergate" that allowed boats entry to the fortress. It was so named because this was the entrance by which prisoners (often traitors) entered the fortress, often never to leave. Ahead is Wakefield Tower, the entrance to the inner courtyards and a space that can be rented for small banquets and private dinners. Inside the inner courtyards, visitors get a good first look at the White Tower, the 11th century Norman castle at the heart of the Tower (and the original "Tower" the entire complex is named for). Built of distinctive white stone, it has been a beacon of royal power for centuries. It is four stories tall and at points has walls of up to 15 feet thick, with towers on the four corners that have cupolas atop them (added much later than the original structure). Within the Tower is an impressive collection of medieval armor and arms, as well as the well-preserved St. John's Chapel. Directly behind the White Tower is the Waterloo Block, also known as the Jewel House. A perennial favorite of visitors, the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom are stored here when not in use. In the southeast corner of the inner courtyard (the "Inner Ward") is a charming green space backed by lovely Tudor structures whose calm belies their bloody history. This is the Tower Green which was the location of the executions of all of those prisoners who were given "Private" deaths (as opposed to a "Public" death which occurred outside the walls on Tower Hill before the London mob). Ultimately, it's impossible to fully appreciate the Tower without understanding its context. Like all fortresses, it was built to control and protect its surroundings, and the history of the Tower is bound up in the mutual histories of London and the Monarchy. The unfolding saga of war, imprisonment, glory, and treason in England can all be told through the lens of the Tower, and the lives that intersected with it.

*Includes pictures. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century. The Greeks and Romans continue to fascinate the West today. But of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. In 2012 especially, there was a renewed focus on the Mayans, whose advanced calendar has led many to speculate the world would end on the same date the Mayan calendar ends, but if anything, the focus on the "doomsday" scenario overshadowed the Mayans' true contribution to astronomy, language, sports, and art. The Maya maintained power in the Yucatan for over a thousand years, and at the height of its "Classical era" (3rd-9th centuries A.D.), the city of Tikal was one of the power centers of the empire. Archaeologists believe Tikal had been built as early as the 5th or 4th century BC, and eventually it became a political, economic and military capital that was an important part of a far-flung network across Mesoamerica, despite the fact it was seemingly conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD. It seems the foreign rulers came to assimilate Mayan culture, thus ensuring Tikal would continue to be a power base, and as a result, the city would not be abandoned until about the 10th century AD. As one of the Ancient Maya's most important sites, construction at Tikal was impressive, and even though it was apparently conquered, the city's records were unusually well preserved. This includes a list of the city's dynastic rulers, as well as the tombs and monuments dedicated to them. Thanks to this preservation, Tikal offers researchers their best look at the Ancient Maya and has gone a long way toward helping scholars understand Mayan history. Tikal: The History of the Ancient Maya's Famous Capital covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation and debate surrounding it. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Tikal like you never have before, in no time at all.