Bøger af Pourya Zarshenas

Chemistry is the study of the structure and transformation of matter. When Aristotle wrote the first systematic treatises on chemistry in the 4th century BCE, his conceptual grasp of the nature of matter was tailored to accommodate a relatively simple range of observable phenomena. In the 21st century, chemistry has become the largest scientific discipline, producing over half a million publications a year ranging from direct empirical investigations to substantial theoretical work. However, the specialized interest in the conceptual issues arising in chemistry, hereafter Philosophy of Chemistry, is a relatively recent addition to philosophy of science.Philosophy of chemistry has two major parts. In the first, conceptual issues arising within chemistry are carefully articulated and analyzed. Such questions which are internal to chemistry include the nature of substance, atomism, the chemical bond, and synthesis. In the second, traditional topics in philosophy of science such as realism, reduction, explanation, confirmation, and modeling are taken up within the context of chemistry.

One standard definition for economics is the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. A second definition is the study of choice related to the allocation of scarce resources. The first definition indicates that economics includes any business, nonprofit organization, or administrative unit. The second definition establishes that economics is at the core of what managers of these organizations do.This book presents economic concepts and principles from the perspective of ¿managerial economics,¿ which is a subfield of economics that places special emphasis on the choice aspect in the second definition. The purpose of managerial economics is to provide economic terminology and reasoning for the improvement of managerial decisions.Most readers will be familiar with two different conceptual approaches to the study of economics: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics studies phenomena related to goods and services from the perspective of individual decision-making entities¿that is, households and businesses. Macroeconomics approaches the same phenomena at an aggregate level, for example, the total consumption and production of a region.

Welcome to the timely publication of this book. Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. It includes sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy stands in contrast to fossil fuels, which are being used far more quickly than they are being replenished. Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation.Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services. About 20% of humans' global energy consumption is renewables, including almost 30% of electricity. About 8% of energy consumption is traditional biomass, but this is declining. Over 4% of energy consumption is heat energy from modern renewables, such as solar water heating, and over 6% electricity.The Stone Age did not end because the stone ran out.The age of oil must end much sooner than the oil runs out."SoLadies and gentlemen!Welcome to the age of new Energies¿

Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms. It is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term atom includes ions. The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in Standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics -which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons- and nuclear physics, which studies nuclear reactions and special properties of atomic nuclei. As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified.

In chemical synthesis, click chemistry is a class of biocompatible small molecule reactions commonly used in bioconjugation, allowing the joining of substrates of choice with specific biomolecules. Click chemistry is not a single specific reaction, but describes a way of generating products that follow examples in nature, which also generates substances by joining small modular units. In many applications, click reactions join a biomolecule and a reporter molecule. Click chemistry is not limited to biological conditions: the concept of a "click" reaction has been used in chemoproteomic, pharmacological, and various biomimetic applications. However, they have been made notably useful in the detection, localization and qualification of biomolecules.

In summary, this review provides a comprehensive overview of how AI has progressed in various fields of chemistry and aims to provide insight into its future directions for scholarly audiences.Now that finally enough has been explained about the theory of games, I want to state the fact in simple words that it is actually possible to produce chemical compounds using artificial intelligence and good strategies such as game theory and selection theory. Easier and faster.The main thing that should be noted is that with this method, reaching the final answer, especially in the production of pharmaceutical products, is much simpler, more accurate, and faster.

Welcome to the timely publication of this book. Plastic is ubiquitous as packaging material or as part of many products of our daily life. However, due to the steadily increasing global plastic production, plastic particles can now be found everywhere in the environment. It is estimated that between four and twelve million tonnes of plastic enter the seas and oceans every year. Plastic particles, which are intentionally manufactured, are called primary plastic particles. They are added to daily life products like cosmetics or are used in research and diagnostics. Fragmentation of larger plastic items into smaller pieces yields so called secondary plastics and the degradation is caused by exposure to sun, wind or water. In order to assess the potential risk of plastic particles in various sizes, details on the amount of particles released into the environment, their origin, the underlying transformation and fragmentation processes as well as the environmental effects are needed.

The essential meaning of ishr¿q (Persian ¿¿¿¿¿, Arabic: ¿¿¿¿¿¿¿) is "rising", specifically referring to the sunrise, though "illumination" is the more common translation. It has used both Arabic and Persian philosophical texts as means to signify the relation between the ¿apprehending subject¿ (al-maw¿ü al-modrek) and the ¿apprehensible object¿ (al-modrak); beyond philosophical discourse, it is a term used in common discussion. Suhrawardi utilized the ordinariness of the word in order to encompass the all that is mystical along with an array of different kinds of knowledge, including elh¿m, meaning personal inspiration.None of Suhrawardi's works was translated into Latin, so he remained unknown in the Latin West, although his work continued to be studied in the Islamic East. According to Hosein Nasr, Suhrawardi was unknown to the west until he was translated to western languages by contemporary thinkers such as Henry Corbin, and he remains largely unknown even in countries within the Islamic world.Suhrawardi tried to present a new perspective on questions like those of existence.

O aumento da concentração de dióxido de carbono na atmosfera está a fazer subir a temperatura da superfície dos oceanos e a provocar a sua acidificação. Embora o aquecimento e a acidificação sejam fenómenos diferentes, interagem em detrimento dos ecossistemas marinhos. Estas alterações nos oceanos não estão a ocorrer ao mesmo ritmo em todo o lado: existem diferenças significativas nos gradientes de temperatura, latitude e profundidade. Isto significa que as regiões polares como o Alasca, onde a água do mar é relativamente fria, podem absorver mais CO2 do que os trópicos mais quentes. Consequentemente, as águas superficiais polares estão, em geral, a acidificar mais rapidamente do que as de outras latitudes e, em média, as regiões mais quentes do oceano estão a libertar CO2 para a atmosfera, em vez de o absorverem. As diferenças regionais na acidificação dos oceanos podem também ser parcialmente explicadas pelos efeitos dos padrões de circulação oceânica. Devido aos padrões de ventos predominantes e a outros fenómenos naturais, o oceano faz afluir águas profundas ricas em nutrientes e mais ácidas ou corrosivas.

The rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is driving up ocean surface temperatures and causing ocean acidification. Although warming and acidification are different phenomena, they interact to the detriment of marine ecosystems. These changes to the ocean aren¿t occurring at the same rates everywhere: there are significant differences across gradients of temperature, latitude, and depth.The rate at which water absorbs CO2 decreases as water temperature increases. This means that Polar Regions like Alaska, where ocean water is relatively cold, can take up more CO2 than the warmer tropics. As a result, polar surface waters are generally acidifying faster than those in other latitudes, and on average, warmer regions of the ocean are releasing CO2 into the atmosphere instead of absorbing it.The regional differences in ocean acidification can also be partially explained by the effects of ocean circulation patterns. Due to prevailing wind patterns and other natural phenomena, the ocean upwells nutrient-rich and more acidic or corrosive deep waters.

Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development can be defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report, it is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and 20th-century environmental concerns. As the concept of sustainable development developed, it has shifted its focus more towards the economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.

Le développement durable est un principe d'organisation permettant d'atteindre les objectifs de développement humain tout en préservant la capacité des systèmes naturels à fournir les ressources naturelles et les services écosystémiques dont dépendent l'économie et la société. Le résultat souhaité est un état de la société où les conditions de vie et les ressources sont utilisées pour continuer à répondre aux besoins humains sans porter atteinte à l'intégrité et à la stabilité du système naturel. Le développement durable peut être défini comme un développement qui répond aux besoins du présent sans compromettre la capacité des générations futures à répondre à leurs propres besoins. Si le concept moderne de développement durable découle principalement du rapport Brundtland de 1987, il trouve également ses racines dans des idées antérieures sur la gestion durable des forêts et dans les préoccupations environnementales du 20e siècle. Au fur et à mesure que le concept de développement durable s'est développé, il s'est davantage concentré sur le développement économique, le développement social et la protection de l'environnement pour les générations futures.

Lo sviluppo sostenibile è un principio organizzativo per raggiungere gli obiettivi di sviluppo umano sostenendo al contempo la capacità dei sistemi naturali di fornire le risorse naturali e i servizi ecosistemici da cui dipendono l'economia e la società. Il risultato desiderato è uno stato della società in cui le condizioni di vita e le risorse sono utilizzate per continuare a soddisfare i bisogni umani senza compromettere l'integrità e la stabilità del sistema naturale. Lo sviluppo sostenibile può essere definito come uno sviluppo che soddisfa le esigenze del presente senza compromettere la capacità delle generazioni future di soddisfare i propri bisogni. Il concetto moderno di sviluppo sostenibile deriva principalmente dal Rapporto Brundtland del 1987, ma affonda le sue radici anche in idee precedenti sulla gestione sostenibile delle foreste e sulle preoccupazioni ambientali del XX secolo. Man mano che il concetto di sviluppo sostenibile si è sviluppato, ha spostato la sua attenzione maggiormente verso lo sviluppo economico, lo sviluppo sociale e la protezione dell'ambiente per le generazioni future.

Nachhaltige Entwicklung ist ein Organisationsprinzip, um die Ziele der menschlichen Entwicklung zu erreichen und gleichzeitig die Fähigkeit der natürlichen Systeme zu erhalten, die natürlichen Ressourcen und Ökosystemleistungen bereitzustellen, von denen Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft abhängen. Das angestrebte Ergebnis ist ein gesellschaftlicher Zustand, in dem die Lebensbedingungen und Ressourcen so genutzt werden, dass die menschlichen Bedürfnisse weiterhin erfüllt werden, ohne die Integrität und Stabilität des natürlichen Systems zu untergraben. Nachhaltige Entwicklung kann als eine Entwicklung definiert werden, die die Bedürfnisse der Gegenwart befriedigt, ohne die Fähigkeit künftiger Generationen zu gefährden, ihre eigenen Bedürfnisse zu befriedigen. Das moderne Konzept der nachhaltigen Entwicklung geht zwar hauptsächlich auf den Brundtland-Bericht von 1987 zurück, hat aber auch seine Wurzeln in früheren Ideen zur nachhaltigen Waldbewirtschaftung und in Umweltbelangen des 20. Jahrhunderts. Mit der Weiterentwicklung des Konzepts der nachhaltigen Entwicklung hat sich der Schwerpunkt stärker auf die wirtschaftliche und soziale Entwicklung sowie den Umweltschutz für künftige Generationen verlagert.

O desenvolvimento sustentável é um princípio organizador para atingir os objectivos de desenvolvimento humano e, ao mesmo tempo, manter a capacidade dos sistemas naturais para fornecer os recursos naturais e os serviços ecossistémicos de que dependem a economia e a sociedade. O resultado desejado é um estado da sociedade em que as condições de vida e os recursos são utilizados para continuar a satisfazer as necessidades humanas sem comprometer a integridade e a estabilidade do sistema natural. O desenvolvimento sustentável pode ser definido como um desenvolvimento que satisfaz as necessidades do presente sem comprometer a capacidade das gerações futuras de satisfazerem as suas próprias necessidades. Embora o conceito moderno de desenvolvimento sustentável derive maioritariamente do Relatório Brundtland de 1987, está também enraizado em ideias anteriores sobre gestão florestal sustentável e preocupações ambientais do século XX. À medida que o conceito de desenvolvimento sustentável se foi desenvolvendo, passou a centrar-se mais no desenvolvimento económico, no desenvolvimento social e na protecção do ambiente para as gerações futuras.

Metal¿organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of compounds consisting of metal ions or clusters coordinated to organic ligands to form one-, two-, or three-dimensional structures. They are a subclass of coordination polymers, with the special feature that they are often porous. The organic ligands included are sometimes referred to as "struts" or "linkers", one example being 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid (BDC).More formally, a metal¿organic framework is a coordination network with organic ligands containing potential voids. A coordination network is a coordination compound extending, through repeating coordination entities, in one dimension, but with cross-links between two or more individual chains, loops, or spiro-links, or a coordination compound extending through repeating coordination entities in two or three dimensions; and finally a coordination polymer is a coordination compound with repeating coordination entities extending in one, two, or three dimensions. In some cases, the pores are stable during elimination of the guest molecules (often solvents) and could be refilled with other compounds. Ladies and gentlemen!Welcome to the realm of MOF!

Where did chemistry come from? Early "chemists" focused on practical problems -how to make dyes and perfumes, soap manufacture, uses of metals, and glass production, among others. The goal was not to understand the physical world- that came later. People just wanted to make things that would improve their lives in some way.The history of chemistry is an interesting and challenging one. Very early chemists were often motivated mainly by the achievement of a specific goal or product. Making perfume and soaps did not require much theory, just a good recipe and careful attention to detail. There was no standard way of naming materials (and no periodic table that everyone could agree on). However, the science developed over the centuries.Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid foundation when Robert Boyle (1637-1691) began his research in chemistry. He developed the basic ideas for the behavior of gases; gases could thereafter be described mathematically. Boyle also helped pioneer the idea that small particles could combine to form molecules. Many years later, John Dalton used these ideas to develop the atomic theory.

Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms.[1] It is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term atom includes ions.The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in Standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics -which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons- and nuclear physics, which studies nuclear reactions and special properties of atomic nuclei.As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics.

Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. The term zeolite was originally coined in 1756 by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who observed that rapidly heating a material, believed to have been stilbite, produced large amounts of steam from water that had been adsorbed by the material. Based on this, he called the material zeolite, from the Greek ¿¿¿ (zé¿), meaning "to boil" and ¿¿¿¿¿ (líthos), meaning "stone". The classic reference for the field has been Breck's book Zeolite Molecular Sieves: Structure, Chemistry, and Use.Zeolites occur naturally but are also produced industrially on a large scale. As of December 2018, 253 unique zeolite frameworks have been identified, and over 40 naturally occurring zeolite frameworks are known. Every new zeolite structure that is obtained is examined by the International Zeolite Association Structure Commission and receives a three letter designation.Zeolites have a porous structure that can accommodate a wide variety of cations, such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and others. Ladies and Gentlemen!Welcome to the realm of hard frames empire!

Carbon (C), nonmetallic chemical element in Group 14 (IVa) of the periodic table. Although widely distributed in nature, carbon is not particularly plentiful -it makes up only about 0.025 percent of Earth¿s crust- yet it forms more compounds than all the other elements combined. In 1961 the isotope carbon-12 was selected to replace oxygen as the standard relative to which the atomic weights of all the other elements are measured. Carbon-14, which is radioactive, is the isotope used in radiocarbon dating and radiolabeling.On a weight basis, carbon is 19th in order of elemental abundance in Earth¿s crust, and there are estimated to be 3.5 times as many carbon atoms as silicon atoms in the universe. Only hydrogen, helium, oxygen, neon, and nitrogen are atomically more abundant in the cosmos than carbon. Carbon is the cosmic product of the ¿burning¿ of helium, in which three helium nuclei, atomic weight 4, fuse to produce a carbon nucleus, atomic weight 12.In the crust of Earth, elemental carbon is a minor component. However, carbon compounds (i.e., carbonates of magnesium and calcium) form common minerals (e.g., magnesite, dolomite, marble, or limestone).

A coordination complex consists of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the coordination center, and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ligands or complexing agents. Many metal-containing compounds, especially those that include transition metals (elements like titanium that belong to the Periodic Table's d-block), are coordination complexes.Coordination chemistry emerged from the work of Alfred Werner, a Swiss chemist who examined different compounds composed of cobalt (III) chloride and ammonia. Upon the addition of hydrochloric acid, Werner observed that ammonia could not be completely removed. He then proposed that the ammonia must be bound more tightly to the central cobalt ion. However, when aqueous silver nitrate was added, one of the products formed was solid silver chloride. The amount of silver chloride formed was related to the number of ammonia molecules bound to the cobalt (III) chloride. For example, when silver nitrate was added to CoCl3¿6NH3, all three chlorides were converted to silver chloride. However, when silver nitrate was added to CoCl3¿5NH3, only 2 of the 3 chlorides formed silver chloride.

Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage, duration of exposure (whether it is acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. Toxicologists are experts on poisons and poisoning. There is a movement for evidence-based toxicology as part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Toxicology is currently contributing to the field of cancer research, since some toxins can be used as drugs for killing tumor cells. One prime example of this is ribosome-inactivating proteins, tested in the treatment of leukemia.

Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an area of chemistry and chemical engineering focused on the design of products and processes that minimize or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. While environmental chemistry focuses on the effects of polluting chemicals on nature, green chemistry focuses on the environmental impact of chemistry, including lowering consumption of nonrenewable resources and technological approaches for preventing pollution. The overarching goals of green chemistry¿namely, more resource-efficient and inherently safer design of molecules, materials, products, and processes¿can be pursued in a wide range of contexts.The concept of greening chemistry developed in the business and regulatory communities as a natural evolution of pollution prevention initiatives. In our efforts to improve crop protection, commercial products and medicines, we also caused unintended harm to our planet and humans. By the mid-20th century, some of the long-term negative effects of these advancements could not be ignored. Pollution choked many of the world's waterways and acid rain deteriorated forest health.

Petroleum, also known as crude oil and oil, is a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations. It is commonly refined into various fuels and chemicals. Components of petroleum are separated by means of distillation. Petroleum mainly consists of hydrocarbons as well as traces of other organic compounds.The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, mostly zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both prolonged heat and pressure.Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterisation. Recent developments in technologies have also led to exploitation of other unconventional reserves such as oil sands and oil shale.