Bøger udgivet af American Medical Publishers

Radiopharmaceutical chemistry is the field of chemistry that aims at exploring the role of radiopharmaceuticals or radiotracers in developing scientific and clinical tools for use in the medical field. Radiopharmaceuticals are radioactive agents used to diagnose or treat certain medical problems or diseases. They are used to examine blood flow to the brain, functioning of the liver, lungs, heart, or kidneys, assess bone growth, and confirm other diagnostic procedures. The dosages of radiopharmaceuticals that are used to diagnose medical problems vary depending on the patient and the type of test. Some radiopharmaceuticals are used in large quantities to treat certain types of cancer and other illnesses. In these cases, the radioactive material is absorbed into the cancerous area and destroys the affected tissue. Radiopharmaceutical therapy (RPT) has emerged as a safe and effective targeted approach for treating many types of cancer. RPT is a new treatment for cancer that offers several advantages over existing treatment approaches. Unlike radiation therapy, radiation is not delivered externally, but is delivered systemically or locally, similar to chemotherapy or biological targeted therapy. Radiopharmaceutical chemistry is an upcoming field of science that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. Those in search of information to further their knowledge on this discipline as well as its applications will be greatly assisted by this book.

A biomarker is a biological molecule present in the blood, other body fluids or tissues, that indicates normal or abnormal process, condition or a disease. It can act as an alternative tool and is helpful in selecting accurate treatment in various diseases. Gastrointestinal cancer is a malignant condition affecting gastrointestinal tract and organs of the digestive system including the stomach, pancreas, esophagus, small and large intestine, biliary system, rectum and anus. In the case of esophageal cancer, methylation of DNA can be used as a biomarker for early detection because methylation patterns appear in the initial stages. Protein biomarkers are utilized as markers for gastric tumor for effective diagnosis, prognosis and checking for recurrence of cancer after treatment. Various biomarkers that are utilized in case of stomach cancer include antigens like CA12-5 and CA72-4 as well as alpha-fetoprotein. This book provides comprehensive insights on biomarkers. The topics covered herein deal with the core aspects of the detection of gastrointestinal cancers through biomarkers. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Radiation oncology refers to a medical field which utilizes a multidisciplinary approach for the treatment of cancer. It makes use of radiation therapy, which involves the treatment of patients with X-rays generated through electron accelerators. Particle therapy is an emerging technique of radiotherapy. A variety of solid cancers have been treated using protons and carbon ions. The physical properties of the charged particles help in avoiding damage to the normal tissues, as compared to the use of conventional X-rays. This makes proton therapy a safe treatment option for pediatric tumors as well. The treatment and technology utilized in radiation oncology is improving rapidly, which have resulted in an increased number of positive outcomes for patients, as well as fast treatments with few side effects. This book aims to understand the clinical perspectives of radiation oncology. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the various concepts and applications of this area of medicine. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

Radiation therapy refers to a technique used for treating cancer with the help of high energy charged particles. It is one of the three major modalities utilized for the treatment of malignant diseases, the other two modalities being chemotherapy and surgery. Radiotherapy utilizes ionizing radiation to treat cancer and is significantly reliant on modern technology. It is also dependent on the joint efforts of a number of medical specialties, such as radiation oncology and medical physics, whose coordinated team approach has a significant impact on the outcome of the treatment. Radiation therapy for cancer requires an understanding of radiation physics along with the interaction of ionizing radiation with human tissue. It is utilised as a primary treatment for cancer, and can be given individually or in combination with other treatments like medications or chemotherapy. This book explores all the important aspects of radiation therapy in the present day scenario. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in this form of cancer therapy. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Public health emergencies can be defined as events that adversely impact the public health system and/or its protective infrastructure such as water, sanitation, shelter, food, fuel and health. Public health emergencies shift the focus of healthcare from individual patients to mass casualties. The objective of a public health emergency is to build and promote the capabilities of health systems, communities and individuals for effectively preventing, protecting against, responding to, and recovering from disasters. The first stage of disaster management is detection, which requires awareness of the situation. It involves communication and the management of information from both clinical and community perspectives. The second stage involves the establishment of an incident management structure. An incident command system (ICS) is a management tool used for centralizing the process of planning, operations, logistics and finance. Safety and security is the third stage in the context of disaster management which allows for a faster and more effective initiation of a response. This book explores the principles of risk assessment and mitigation strategies associated with public health and disasters. It will prove immensely beneficial to students, researchers, and policymakers dealing with the subject of public health and disaster management.

Health is a state where a person has complete emotional, physical and mental wellbeing and it is dependent upon a stable mind and healthy environment. Public health refers to the science of preventing disease, prolonging life and encouraging health through the organized efforts and informed decisions of society, organizations, communities and individuals. The foundation of public health is the examination of a population's health and the challenges it faces. The social perspectives of public health and disease take into account the interaction between health and society. It encompasses all the aspects of life, including modern and historical influences, which have affected and transformed the wellbeing and heath of people. The status of health in a society is directly interlinked with its value system, cultural traditions and its political, economic and social organization. According to the social perspective, disease and its development is considered a result of poverty, which is measured through per capita income along with malnutrition, poor health, sanitation, clothing and shelter. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of public health as well as its relation to disease and development. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Pathology refers to the study of a disease which acts as a connecting link between science and medicine. Psychopathology is the connecting link between the science and clinical practice of psychology. It is the scientific study of abnormal mental states. It has provided a structure for psychiatric diseases and driven clinical and scientific advancement in modern psychiatry. Changes in eating patterns, mood swings, worry or anxiety, distress, irritability or anger, inability to focus, anger, weariness, sleep disturbances, thoughts of self-harm, difficulty coping with daily life, and withdrawal from hobbies and friends are all symptoms studied under psychopathology. Some of the leading causes of mental disorder conditions include genetics, brain chemistry, chronic medical conditions, isolation feeling, lack of social support, alcohol abuse, and traumatic or stressful experiences. The different types of psychopathological disorders include anxiety disorders, bipolar disorders, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), personality disorders, sleep disorders, trauma-related disorder, etc. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of psychopathology. It elucidates the concepts and researches with respect to this field. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of psychopathology as well as for experts.

Psychosomatic medicine refers to an interdisciplinary medical specialty that studies the effects of behavioral, social and psychological factors on bodily functions and quality of life in both animals and human beings. Two distinguishing characteristics of psychosomatic practice are the clinical model of thinking and the holistic approach to patient management. The primary aim of psychosomatic medicine is to address the shortcomings in medical care, through the integration of novel operational tactics into clinical practice. Medical assessment and treatment can be enhanced through employment of psychosomatic medicine techniques, particularly with regard to lifestyle modification, medically unexplained symptoms and chronic diseases. Psychosomatic medicine is significant in clinical settings, where mental processes play a significant role in the medical results. It oversees the emotional and mental states as having the capability to affect the course of an illness. This book will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of psychosomatic medicine. Those with an interest in this field would find it helpful.

A psychiatric disease is a mental illness which significantly disrupts the thinking, behavior and mood of an individual and severely increases the risk of pain, death, disability or loss of freedom. There are various categories of psychiatric diseases including anxiety disorders, depression, addictive behaviors, schizophrenia, personality disorders and eating disorders. Symptoms of psychiatric diseases comprise drug or alcohol abuse, suicidal thinking, confused thinking, inability to handle daily problems and stress, extreme tiredness, sleeping problems and more. Schizophrenia is a serious psychiatric disease. It result in detachment from reality and people having this diseases experience disorganized speech and thinking, delusions, and hallucinations. Anxiety involves focusing on dangerous and bad things, which can happen and worrying about them excessively. It also comprises phobias such as irrational fears in regards to particular things like height. This book explores all the important aspects of psychiatry in the present day scenario. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Psychiatric disorders refer to various health conditions that affect the thoughts, behaviour and mood of a person. Clinically, these disorders can be characterised by disturbances in behaviour, emotional regulation and cognition. These are related with impairment and distress in significant areas of functioning. There are varieties of psychiatric disorders, but they can be categorised into dementia-related disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, psychotic disorders and personality disorders. These disorders significantly impact the capability of a person to maintain social relations at school or work. Assessment of psychiatric disorders can be done through a mental status examination, in which behaviour, appearance, circumstances of current life, mental health history and other symptoms are evaluated. Psychiatric disorders can be treated and treatment differs from person to person. Treatment depends on the type of disorder, severity and scope of the symptoms. Certain people experience relief with a single treatment, while other may have to try combinations of treatments. The most effective treatment of psychiatric disorders generally involves a combination of psychotherapy, medication and adopting healthy lifestyle. This book provides comprehensive insights on psychiatric disorders. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Pruritus (itch) is a sensation that leads to the desire or reflex to scratch. If the sensation lasts for six weeks or beyond, then it is referred to as chronic pruritus. The signs and symptoms of chronic pruritus include contagious itch and itch inhibition due to pain. There are various causes leading to this condition that include factors such as infections, allergy and environment, and skin disorders. Infections like body louse, cutaneous larva migrans, head lice, herpes, insect bites, tungiasis, etc. and skin disorders such as dandruff, xerosis, and punctate palmoplantar keratoderma are some factors that lead to chronic pruritus. It can develop in the peripheral nervous system (dermal or neuropathic) or in the central nervous system (neuropathic, neurogenic, or psychogenic). Treatment methods include anti-itch drugs and some plant products that act as effective anti-pruritic. Certain non-chemical remedies such as cooling, warming, and soft stimulation are also used. If severe itching is caused due to kidney failure, then phototherapy can also be used as a treatment. This book strives to provide a fair idea about pruritus and will help develop a better understanding of the latest advances in its diagnosis and management. It includes contributions of experts and researchers, which will provide innovative insights to all involved in the study and management of this disease.

Psoriasis is a non-communicable and chronic autoimmune disease. It is characterized by red, itchy scaly patches mostly on the knees, elbows, back and scalp. There are five main forms of psoriasis. It includes plaque psoriasis, guttate psoriasis, inverse psoriasis, pustular psoriasis, and erythrodermic psoriasis. It is a genetic disease, which is stimulated by environmental factors. Stress, obesity, smoking, alcohol consumption, skin dryness, HIV infection, and certain drugs are some key factors that prompt this condition. It leads to several complications such as conjunctivitis, metabolic syndrome, Crohn's disease, Parkinson's disease, etc. Diagnosis varies according to the appearance of the skin. It includes differential diagnosis and in certain cases a skin biopsy. Psoriatic arthritis is a type of inflammatory arthritis which affects people who have psoriasis. The most common treatments for mild to moderate psoriasis include topical treatments (application of creams or ointments), phototherapy, and systemic treatment (oral and injected medications). Treatment of psoriatic arthritis involves biological therapies, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and steroid injections. From theories to research to practical applications, case studies related to various topics of relevance to psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis have been included in this book. Students, immunologists, doctors, researchers, and all interested in this medical condition will find it beneficial.

Bacteria are living organisms found ubiquitously in nature and have only one biological cell. They constitute a wide domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. In bacteria, unfolded proteins are transported through the secretion pathways across the cytoplasmic membrane. This transportation consists of three parts, which include a protein targeting component, a motor protein and membrane integrated conducting channel. Bacteria have a range of protein transportation pathways, which are necessary for functions like pathogenicity and viability. Generally, bacterial secretion comprises secretion of unfolded proteins which primarily remain within the cells. In case of gram-negative bacteria, secreted proteins are delivered to inner membrane or the periplasm. The protein can remain in the cell or it is usually transported out of the bacteria via other secretion systems. Klebsiella pneumonia, Yersinia enterocolitica and Vibrio cholerae are the gram-negative bacteria that utilize the secretion system. Gram-positive bacteria that utilize the secretion system include Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. This book covers in detail some existent theories and innovative concepts revolving on the protein secretion pathways in bacteria. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Proteins are biopolymeric structures that are made up of amino acids. They are essential for the body as they are an important constituent of cells. Proteins are also involved in important physiological and biochemical processes such as biochemical reactions, hormonal signalling, cell-receptor interactions, apoptosis, etc. Proteins are characterized based on their structures. There are four structural levels, namely, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. The primary structure of proteins is made up of linear order of amino acid residues that are connected via peptide bonds. Secondary protein structure consists of alpha helix, beta-pleated sheet, and beta-turn, and these shapes are stabilized by hydrogen bonds. The tertiary protein structure consists of a 3D shape and it is formed by the interaction of the polypeptide chain backbone with an aqueous environment. Quarternary protein structure is formed from multiple polypeptide chains called subunits. Body requires proteins for growth and maintenance of cells and tissues. They are involved in various functions such as supporting the regulation and expression of the DNA and RNA, moving essential molecules in the body, supporting muscle contraction and movement, etc. The aim of this book is to present researches on the physiological and pathological aspects of proteins. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Probiotics refer to the living microorganisms, whose consumption is regarded to have health benefits, generally by restoring and improving gut flora. They are safe to consume but they may result in side effects and bacteria-host interactions in some situations. Probiotic-fortified foods, fermented dairy products and other fermented foods contain live probiotic cultures. Lactic acid bacteria (LABs), that are food fermenting bacteria, prevent food from spoilage and can increase the nutritional content of the foods they live in. There are several fermented products, which contains LAB, such as pao cai, kimchi, sauerkraut, pickled vegetables, etc. They are assumed to be beneficial in decreasing gastrointestinal discomfort, relieving constipation and evading the common cold. This book contains some path-breaking studies on probiotics. It strives to provide a fair idea about their applications in food and pharmacology. This book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of research in this area of study.

Hearing disorders are a type of disorder wherein the affected person is not able to perceive or process auditory information. Hearing disorders may lead to hearing loss which can be partial or complete, and may occur in one or both ears. There are various hearing disorders that include tinnitus, endaural phenomena, hyperacusis, presbycusis, etc. Tinnitus is a disorder characterized by sensitivity to sound when, in fact, there is no actual sound. This obstructs the normal functioning of the ear as the patient experiences sounds such as ringing, clicking, buzzing, or hissing. It often impedes concentration, leading to anxiety and depression. The management of tinnitus includes identification of the specific cause followed by the treatment. The primary treatments are classified into psychological, sound based interventions, and medications. These involve talk therapy, sound therapy, and hearing aids. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the best supported treatment for this disorder. This book contains some path-breaking studies on tinnitus. It strives to provide a fair idea about this medical condition and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances related to its assessment and management. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a medical condition, wherein the ductus arteriosus blood vessel fails to close after birth. This causes a portion of oxygenated blood from the left heart to flow back to the lungs by flowing through the aorta (which has a higher pressure) to the pulmonary artery. Symptoms become visible towards the end of the first year of life. The common symptoms of PDA include dyspnea (shortness of breath), failure to gain weight at a normal rate, cardiomegaly, and tachycardia. If PDA is not treated at the appropriate time, it may lead to pulmonary hypertension followed by right-sided heart failure. The diagnosis is performed using non-invasive techniques such as echocardiography and chest X-ray. The administration of intravenous indomethacin on the first day of life to all preterm infants lowers the risk of infants developing PDA and the complications associated with PDA. The treatment of this disease comprises both surgical and non-surgical methods. This book includes a detailed explanation of the various interventions for persisting ductus arteriosus. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Personalized cancer medicine studies human genes in different types of cancers. This field of medicine is helpful in designing more efficient treatments by utilising genetic information for developing different tests for cancer and the ways for preventing it. Standard cancer treatments are divided into four categories, which include chemotherapy, surgery, immunotherapy and radiation therapy. The patient's active participation is crucial to enhance the effectiveness of personalized medicines. It has fewer side effects than other forms of treatment, as it is designed to be more precise. A personalized treatment will not target the healthy cells and can have greater impact on cancer cells. Targeted therapy is one of the examples of personalized cancer medicine, which can be used to treat brain cancer, cervical cancer, breast cancer, liver cancer and pancreatic cancer. This book explores all the important principles of personalized cancer medicine. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of medicine as well as for experts.

A functional imaging technique that utilizes radioactive substances, known as radiotracers, to measure and visualize changes in metabolic processes and physiological activities, such as blood flow, is called the positron emission tomography (PET). This mechanism is also appropriate for measuring physiological activities such as regional chemical composition and absorption. PET is a valuable research and medical tool used in pre-clinical and clinical settings, majorly used in the imaging of tumors. Based on the target process within the body, different tracers are used for various imaging processes. For instance, NaF is widely used for detecting bone formation, and oxygen-15 is sometimes used to measure blood flow and F-FDG is commonly used to detect cancer. PET has the potential to detect biochemical processes and some protein expressions as it provides molecular level information before any anatomic changes are visible. The major disadvantage of a PET scanner is its high purchase cost and the recurring operating expenses. This book contains some path-breaking studies related to positron emission tomography. It strives to provide a fair idea about this imaging technique and to help develop a better understanding of its clinical applications. The book is appropriate for students as well as experts seeking detailed information regarding positron emission tomography.

The term pregnancy refers to the period when one or more fetuses develop inside a woman's womb or uterus. It involves a series of changes that occur in a woman's body as a baby develops within the body. The complete process from conception till birth is completed in about 9 months, which is an average of 266-270 days. The preliminary signs of pregnancy include missed menstrual periods, morning nausea, and feeling of fullness. Enlarged and tender breasts, unusual and persistent fatigue, and frequent urination are some other signs of pregnancy. During the first trimester, all pregnant women experience vomiting and nausea. There are several methods that help in determining pregnancy such as pelvic examination by an obstetrician. The most reliable and affordable method is agglutination test. Prenatal care is important for both mother and fetus. Pregnant women must restrict the consumption of substances like smoking, alcoholic beverages, and non-prescription drugs that harm the fetus. Some of the major challenges that are faced during pregnancy include bladder and bowel changes, hair changes, skin color changes, indigestion, heartburn, leg cramps, etc. This book contains some recent studies on pregnancy and birth. It unravels the recent researches related to the challenges and concerns related to pregnancy and birth. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine reproductive disorder of females, which is common among females of reproductive age. This hormonal imbalance is frequent among females in the age group of 18-44 years. PCOS is characterized by complexities such as numerous cysts, an irregular or prolonged menstrual cycle, or excess androgen levels. It is a major cause of infertility in females. An elevated level of androgen or male hormone leads to hirsutism and acne. It may further result in insulin resistance, which causes obesity and type-2 Diabetes. The ovaries may develop a number of small collections of follicles, which hinder their normal functioning. Although the exact cause of PCOS is not known, some major factors that lead to PCOS are stress, obesity, and changes in hormonal levels. Genetic factors such as alteration in the metabolic pathways due to faulty genes may also speed up the progression of PCOS and ovary dysfunction. Diagnosis of PCOS is based on Rotterdam criteria, i.e., irregular menstrual cycle, elevated levels of androgens, and the presence of cysts. Weight loss, healthy diet, and taking the recommended medications can help reduce the severity of PCOS. The topics covered in this extensive book deal with the core aspects of PCOS and its management. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

An ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to generate the images of various structures inside the body. Point of care ultrasound is the use of ultrasound for making immediate decisions regarding the patient's care in emergency situations. This application of ultrasound is used for evaluating the medical condition in settings like combat zone, emergency medicine, ambulance or critical care unit. Point of care ultrasound is used for diagnosing certain pathologic conditions or injuries quickly, where other diagnostic methods will consume more time and expose the patient to greater risk. It is used for monitoring and guiding resuscitation of terminally ill patients, simultaneously confirming the clinical diagnosis to guide procedural guidance and safety. Furthermore, it is also being utilized in code blue situations, where a person has lost all signs of life. This book explores all the important aspects of point of care ultrasound in the present day scenario. It consists of contributions made by international experts. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers interested in this area of medical ultrasound.

Pharmacology is a branch of medicine concerned with the interaction of drugs with the systems and processes of living animals. It is involved in the mechanisms of drug action along with therapeutic and other uses of drugs. There are two major sub-disciplines of pharmacology, namely, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics is involved in the study of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs. Pharmacodynamics deals with the study of the molecular, biochemical and physiological effects of drugs, including drug mechanism of action. The field of pharmacology has majorly contributed to the development of knowledge about the cellular receptors with which the drugs interact. The discovery of personalized precision medicine and gene therapy through genomic and proteomic approaches, and application of nano-based technology in prevention against disease are some significant developments in pharmacology. This book consists of contributions made by international experts. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within the field of pharmacology. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

Single membrane channels are created through combination of two distinct membrane protein families, pannexins and connexins. These channels function as aqueous pores absorbent to small molecules and ions, to permit the diffusional interchange between the intracellular and extracellular environments. Ion fluxes across the plasma membrane in all mammalian cells are controlled by these specific membrane proteins. The channels create functional oligomeric complexes by interacting with ancillary proteins that contribute to health maintenance and cellular homeostasis. Membrane channels having varied ion selectivity modulate membrane excitability and potential. The formation of action potential triggers muscle contraction, among other cellular functions. These proteins are targets of many drugs ranging from antiepileptics to analgesics because of their role in the pathophysiology of numerous human diseases. Thus, ion channel dysfunction causes the onset of a variety of human diseases known as channelopathies, such as metabolic, cardiovascular, neural and autoimmune diseases. This book aims to shed light on the physiology and pathology of channels in the nervous system. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Maternal-fetal medicine refers to a subdivision of medicine that aims to manage the health concerns of the fetus and mother before, during and after the delivery of the baby. It is concerned with taking care of pregnant women who are suffering from chronic conditions like diabetes, hypertension, and kidney and heart disease. It also focuses on the clinical management of pregnancy-related complications, such as twin or triplet pregnancies, pre-eclampsia and preterm labor, along with women whose fetus is at risk. Congenital abnormalities, genetic diseases, maternal infections and diseases can pose a risk to the fetus. The occurrence of infections is common when a woman is pregnant, as the immune system is suppressed naturally. Maintenance of human pregnancy needs strictly regulated tolerance mechanisms and immune interactions, which comprise molecular, microvesicular and cellular transport of biological signaling and information between fetus and mother. Maternal-fetal medicine manages all the conditions related with pregnancy and helps in achieving better patient outcomes. This book unravels the recent studies in maternal-fetal medicine. It is appropriate for students and professionals seeking detailed information on the physiology, pathophysiology and clinical management in this area of medicine.

Pharmacokinetics (PK) determines the outcome of substances which are administered in the human body and involves drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) processes. Drug absorption is the movement of drug in the bloodstream from its site of administration. It depends on multiple factors, including the formulation and chemical properties of a drug, drug-food interactions and route of administration. Drug distribution is essential for determining drug efficacy and drug toxicity. Drug metabolism is the chemical alteration of the drug by the body. Genetics, age and drug interactions are some factors that affect drug metabolism. In clinical use, an enzyme named cytochrome P450 (CYP450) is responsible for the biotransformation or metabolism of all drugs. It is essential to comprehend the basic mechanisms governing the pharmacokinetics of a drug for designing personalized course of therapy for patients. This book provides comprehensive insights into the role of pharmacokinetics and metabolism in drug design. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

Purine receptors are a type of plasma membrane molecules found in nearly all mammalian tissues. They are classified into three categories and include P1 receptors, P2X receptors, and P2Y receptors. They all play a key role in the variety of neuronal and non-neuronal mechanisms, which comprise pain, immune responses, exocrine and endocrine secretion, platelet aggregation, endothelial-mediated vasodilatation, and inflammation. The G protein is mainly bound to the P1 and P2Y receptors. These receptors are differentiated by considering their reactivity towards particular activators. The brain, heart, kidneys, and adipose tissue all contain P1 and P2Y receptors. These receptors are responsible for various cellular functions, comprising vascular reactivity, migration and proliferation of neural stem cells, cytokine secretion and apoptosis. The study of purine receptors is helpful for developing therapeutic strategies for those disorders, which have new action mechanisms, such as pathogenic conditions, like trauma, pain, epilepsy, ischemia, drug dependence and psychiatric disorders. The objective of this book is to present advanced studies on purine receptors as well as their pharmacological applications. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Epigenetics is the study of heritable phenotype changes that do not entail changes in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic abnormalities have emerged as the most promising biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis in the early stage of illnesses, such as cancer, autoimmune diseases and psychological disorders. A medical model in which people are divided into groups with medical decisions, practices, interventions and products being tailored to the individual patient based on their predicted response or risk of disease is referred as personalized medicine. The terms precision medicine and personalized medicine are utilized interchangeably for describing the concept. Diagnostic testing is used often in personalized medicine to determine suitable and optimal therapies based on a patient's genetic content, or other molecular or cellular analysis. Certain aspects of personalized medicine utilize genetic information, such as pharmacogenomics. With the help of genomics, proteomics and imaging techniques, molecular scale data of the patients is obtained easily. These molecular biomarkers are then used in determining the prognosis of diseases such as cancer. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about personalized precision medicine through this book. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the role of epigenetic biomarkers. This book will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field of study.

Pharmacogenomics is a field of research that studies the role of genome in drug response. It involves the study of how genes affect a person's response to drugs. This field integrates pharmacology with genomics to develop effective, safe medications that may be prescribed based on a person's genetic makeup. There are several factors, such as a patient's age, weight, sex, and liver and kidney functions based on which the drugs are prescribed. Researchers have identified gene variants for a few drugs that affect the body's response to medications. These genetic variations are used to predict whether a medication will be effective for a particular person, and which dose will help in preventing adverse drug reactions. Pharmacogenomics may also be used to develop tailored drugs to treat a wide range of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer disease, cancer and asthma. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of pharmacogenomics. It will serve as a valuable resource for scientists, students, and clinicians engaged in pharmacogenomics research and therapeutic implementation.

Pediatric nephrology refers to a sub-specialty of pediatrics. It is responsible for managing infants, children and young people having acute and chronic kidney disease. It also includes treating kidney diseases through kidney transplantation and dialysis. Pediatric nephrology involves the detailed study of renal physiology, fluid management, and disturbances in acid-base balance and electrolytes. It is involved in the management of various diseases such as acute glomerulonephritis, acute kidney failure, nephritis and inherited cystic kidney disease. Pediatric nephrology investigates and treats children in a manner that helps them to cooperate and relax. Moreover, medical equipment specifically designed for children is used within this field. This book aims to understand the clinical perspectives of pediatric nephrology. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.