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Nitrogen fixation refers to a chemical process in which molecular nitrogen, having a strong triple covalent bond, is converted into ammonia in the air or related nitrogenous compounds found in aquatic systems or soil. Atmospheric nitrogen is molecular dinitrogen that is generally a nonreactive molecule. Biological nitrogen fixation is a microbially mediated process, which utilizes the nitrogenase protein complex for transforming dinitrogen gas into ammonia. Sustainable agriculture refers to a type of farming which aims to fulfill the society's current requirements without compromising the capability of the future generations in meeting their needs. Nitrogen fixation is integral for sustainable food production and agricultural practices. This book provides comprehensive insights on biological nitrogen fixation and sustainable agriculture. Its aim is to present researches that have transformed the study of this subject and aided its advancement. The book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Greenhouse gases, or GHGs, are compound gases with the property of absorbing heat or longwave radiation in the atmosphere. They lead to the greenhouse effect, global warming and climate change. Nuclear tools and techniques help the researchers in monitoring greenhouse gas emissions and understanding environmental changes to oceans, mountains and their ecosystems. They also play an important role in developing ways to adapt to food and water shortages exacerbated by changing weather patterns. In agriculture, nuclear and isotopic techniques are used to reduce emissions by detecting the amount of nitrous oxide a plant can consume. Isotopes are also used to determine the status and movement of water in soil. They can be used to assess the status and movement of soil, which in turn, helps in understanding how strong crops can be produced under changing conditions. This book outlines the varied aspects of greenhouse gas emission and mitigation in agriculture using nuclear methods. It aims to serve as a resource guide for scholars and researchers alike.

Biomolecular engineering is a discipline of engineering that draws from three different fields of study, namely, molecular biology, biophysical chemistry and chemical engineering. It studies the implementation of engineering principles and practices for the intentional manipulation of biomolecules. This field of engineering integrates knowledge of biological processes with the knowledge of chemical engineering to provide molecular level solutions for issues and problems related to environment, agriculture, energy, industry, food production, biotechnology and medicine. Molecules of biological origin include peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids. The biomolecules are manipulated within this field keeping in mind their structures, functions, properties and their applicability in areas such as environmental remediation, crop and livestock production, biofuel cells, and biomolecular diagnostics. Biomolecular engineering is used to observe and investigate the thermodynamics and kinetics of molecular recognition in enzymes, antibodies, DNA hybridization, bio-conjugation/bio-immobilization, and bioseparations. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of biomolecular engineering. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

The collection of plant species which are present in a particular geographical area, and which forms a relatively uniform patch that can be differentiated from neighboring patches of different vegetation types, is known as a plant community. The study of these communities of plants is integral towards developing an understanding of the impact of dispersal, response to disturbance and tolerance to environmental conditions in different varieties of plant species. Interactions and interdependence in plant communities involve the study of the influence of facilitation and positive interactions among species in plant communities. It includes species specificity in facilitative interactions, indirect facilitative interactions, and potential evolutionary aspects of positive interactions. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to interactions and interdependence in plant communities. It attempts to assist those with a goal of delving into the field of botany. This book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Organic agriculture is a holistic approach to agricultural production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Agroecology is related to the study of organic farming methods, and studies ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. The practice of organic agriculture relies on the use of organic fertilizers such as compost manure, green manure and bone meal. Crop rotation and companion planting are major agricultural techniques employed in organic farming. It also encourages crop diversity. Planting a variety of vegetable crops is beneficial for the overall farm health as it supports a wide variety of insects and soil microorganisms that are beneficial for agricultural environment and help protect different species from becoming extinct. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of organic agriculture. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Agriculture refers to the science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock. Carrying out agricultural activities in an efficient way can help a country meet or exceed its food security needs as well as in alleviating poverty. Farming can potentially play an important role in driving agricultural productivity. Poverty and hunger pose significant challenges in existing times. Food security refers to a situation that exists when all people have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life. An increase in agriculture productivity not only increases food security, but also opens a plethora of employment opportunities outside of agriculture sector such as transport, agroprocessing, marketing, distribution and retail. The research works included in this book on food security and poverty reduction are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on this topic.

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which organisms anaerobically convert starch or sugar to alcohol or an acid releasing energy. The process of fermentation is catalyzed with the help of enzymes. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. The first process of fermentation is the same as cellular respiration, which involves the formation of pyruvic acid by glycolysis where a total of two ATP molecules are synthesized. In the next process, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid, ethanol or other products resulting in the formation of NAD+, which is re-utilized back in the glycolysis process. Based on the end-product formed, there are four types of fermentation, namely, lactic acid fermentation, alcohol fermentation, acetic acid fermentation, and butyric acid fermentation. Fermentation process is widely used to make products such as wine, beer, biofuels, yoghurt, pickles, bread, sour foods containing lactic acid, etc. The consumption of fermented food can benefit people by making food nutritious, digestible, and flavorful. It also helps in reducing lactose intolerance and improving the immune system. This book outlines the processes and applications of fermentation in detail. It is appropriate for students as well as for experts seeking detailed information in the area of zymology.

The changes in weather patterns which are spread over a long period of time are known as climate change. Mitigation strategies for climate change refer to the actions taken to limit the human contribution in the global greenhouse effect and the accompanying climate change. Human activities are causing a rise in the concentrations of greenhouse gases globally, resulting in global warming. This effect is exacerbated by numerous self-reinforcing cycles in the Earth's system, such as the melting of sea ice increases the ocean water, which then absorbs more heat resulting in the loss of more sea ice. Furthermore, increased carbon dioxide absorption by the oceans is causing increased level of ocean acidity, which has a negative impact on marine ecosystems. Strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere include shifting to low-carbon energy sources such as geothermal, wind power, solar, hydroelectric or nuclear. This book unravels the recent studies on the mitigation strategies being used for climate change. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Climate refers to a long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. Temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, and wind are the common meteorological variables that are measured to classify climatic conditions. The climate system has five components which include atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. A location's climate is influenced by its altitude, latitude and geography along with nearby water bodies and their currents. Climate change is characterized by changes in the global and regional climates over time. It reflects variations in the atmosphere's variability or average condition over different time spans ranging from decades to millions of years. The climate is dynamic in nature and it keeps changing. Along with human activity, natural processes such as the Earth's tilt, volcanoes, comets and meteorites, continental rifts, and ocean currents can cause these changes. This book unravels the recent studies on climate change. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Climate change adaptation refers to the process of making adjustments in the anticipated or existing effects of climate change. It is one of the strategies for responding to climate change in conjunction with mitigation. Adaptation actions can be transformative or incremental. The need for adaptation differs in different areas depending on the vulnerability and sensitivity to environmental influences. Adaptation actions are classified into three types including structural and physical adaptation, institutional adaptation, and social adaptation. It is particularly crucial in developing countries as they are the most sensitive to climate change and are facing the brunt of its consequences. This book contains some path-breaking studies on adaptation to climate change in developing countries. It picks up individual strategies and explains their need and contribution for mitigating climate change. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Climate change can be countered by two strategies, which include mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation addresses the causes of climate change, whereas adaptation addresses the consequences. Adaptation is the process of making changes in response to climate change. Mitigation is human interference for decreasing the sources of greenhouse gas emissions, to prevent a rise in temperatures. Adaptation focuses on seeking appropriate measures to prevent the impact of climate change. It is quite difficult to forecast adaptation solutions since they differ from place to place and consist of several trade-offs. The first stage in adapting climate change is to understand the local risks and devise strategies for managing them. The next step is to implement systems to respond to the effects being experienced in the present while preparing for the uncertainty in the future. This book provides comprehensive insights on climate mitigation and adaptation. It strives to provide a fair idea about climate change and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances in its management. This book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Hydrogeology, also known as groundwater engineering, is a field of earth science. It deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the earth's crust. The main focus areas in hydrogeology include groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies and water quality. It deals with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous media. Darcy's law diffusion equation and Laplace equations are a few mathematical relationships that are extensively studied and applied within this field. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed this discipline and aided its advancement. The topics included herein on hydrogeology are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

The community of living organisms in conjunction with the non-living components of their environment that interact as a system is referred to as ecosystem. The biotic and abiotic components are linked together by nutrient cycle and energy flows. Forest ecosystem is the basic ecologic unit in a particular forest. It exists as a habitat for a community of both native and introduced classified organisms. The collective living inhabitants of that forest ecosystem co-exist in symbiosis to create a unique ecology. It is a natural woodland unit which consists of all plants, animals and microorganisms of that area that function together with all of the non-living physical factors of the environment. The scientific study of the interrelated processes, patterns, flora, fauna and ecosystems in forests fall under the domain of forest ecology. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of forest ecosystem. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about forest ecosystem.

Biotechnology is an area of biology, which is concerned with the use of living systems, organisms or their derivatives for the development of products and processes for human benefit. Biotechnology has played a crucial role in advancing medicine, food production and agriculture. Practices such as the cultivation of plants, domestication of animals and improvements in either of these through designed breeding programs have been enabled by the use of biotechnology. In the modern day, microorganisms are being used for the manufacture of organic products, for bioleaching by the mining industry, for the treatment and recycling of wastes, and production of biological weapons. Modern biotechnology involves genetic engineering, cell and tissue culture technologies, applied immunology, recombinant gene techniques, etc. Biopharmaceuticals, genetic diagnosis of inherited diseases, genetically modified foods and crops, are some of the significant applications of the field. This book presents the complex subject of biotechnology in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. The various advancements in this field are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this discipline.

Pollination biology or anthecology is the science concerned with the study of pollination and the association between flowers and pollinators. Pollination is an important process in plant reproduction that is essential to the production of fruits and seeds. The process is mediated through an interaction between flowers and pollen vectors. Pollinators (or pollen vectors) are insects, birds or mammals that move pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower. This allows the process of fertilization to occur. The study of pollination ecology encompasses pollination studies at many levels, such as the effectiveness of specific pollinators of a plant species, properties of interactions occurring within communities of plants and floral visitors, etc. This book unravels the recent studies in the fields of pollination biology and ecology. Also included in it is a detailed explanation of the various interactions between pollinators and plants. This book is a vital tool for all researching or studying pollination ecology as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

Bovine animals are the most commonly raised animals as livestock for meat, milk, dung and other products and are often used as draft animals and riding animals. The biological subfamily Bovine includes cattle, bison, African buffalo, the water buffalo, the yak, etc. These bovine animals need special care and treatment as they suffer from various diseases. One of the most common and serious disease found in bovine animals is bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease. Other diseases like blackleg, bluetongue, foot rot, may also be found in bovine animals. Bovine health is not only characterised as a veterinarian issue, but also a public health issue as many diseases can be transmitted to humans through milk or meat. Veterinary medicine is the sub-field of medicine which involves the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of injury, disease and disorder in animals. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of bovine health. It also presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Food chemistry is the study related to the chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. Meat, lettuce, beer, milk are some examples of biological products. Its main components are carbohydrates, lipids and protein. Food chemistry also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors and colors. This domain also focuses on understanding how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways to enhance them. The concepts of food chemistry are often drawn from rheology, physical and chemical thermodynamics, reaction kinetics colloidal interactions and biopolymer science. This field also studies the protein, vitamins, and minerals present in food. The process of addition of additives to enhance or preserve flavour is also under its scope. This book covers in detail some existent theories and innovative concepts revolving around food chemistry. It traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

The study of the function, structure and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems using methods of mechanics is known as biomechanics. Sports biomechanics seeks to employ the principles of biomechanics to analyze and assess human movement during sports. The primary functions of this field are minimizing the risk of sports related injuries and optimizing the performance of the players. Sports biomechanics analyzes body loading to ascertain the safest technique for performing a particular sport. Some of the tools used in this field are mathematical modeling, computer simulation and measurement. Sports biomechanics is an upcoming field of science that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. The topics included in this book about this field are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The science which is concerned with the management, conservation, creation and utilization of forests is referred to as forestry. It also focuses on the conservation of woodlands and other resources associated with forests for environmental and human benefits. It is usually practiced in plantations and natural stands. Modern forestry focuses on the multiple-use management. It includes the provision of fuel wood, timber, natural water quality management, landscape and community protection and biodiversity management. The science of forestry also focuses on various other areas such as erosion control, wildlife habitat, recreation, employment, as well as the preservation of forests as sinks for carbon dioxide in atmosphere. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of forestry which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. It aims to give a general view of the different areas of forestry, and its applications. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject.

The scientific study of the movement, distribution and quality of water on earth and other planets is known as hydrology. The area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into any common outlet such as a river or bay is known as catchment. It includes all the surface water from rain runoff, groundwater and snowmelt. The catchment is the most significant factor in determining the amount or likelihood of flooding. Catchment hydrology primarily focuses on the study of drainage basins with respect to hydrology. It is based on the principle of continuity, which is used to perform a water balance on a catchment. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of catchment hydrology. It traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. The topics covered in this book offer the readers new insights in this domain.

Environmental science is a multidisciplinary approach to the study of the environment through biological, physical and information sciences. Atmospheric sciences, ecology, environmental chemistry, and geosciences are the main components of environmental science. It is an essential field of scientific investigation due to the need for an interdisciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems. It includes the study of environmental system. It also studies the social sciences to understand human relationships with environment. Environmental science examines the effects of human activities on biophysical environment. It also focuses on protecting the environment. Environmental science also studies the interaction of chemical, physical and biological processes. This book is a compilation of chapters that discusses the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of environmental science. It aims to provide a detailed knowledge of the discipline. Scientists and students actively engaged in this field will find this book full of unexplored concepts.

A photovoltaic system is the power system that supplies usable solar power through photovoltaics. It involves the conversion of the sun's radiation into usable electricity. Photovoltaic systems can be categorized into grid-connected, rack mounted, distributed, ground-mounted, building-integrated photovoltaic systems, etc. It comprises of various components such as solar array, cabling, mounting, tracker, etc. A photovoltaic system can range from building-integrated systems having a capacity of several tens of kilowatts to large utility-scale power stations having a capacity of hundreds of megawatts. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of the photovoltaic systems and the recent researches in this field. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies and the evolution of such systems are examined in detail. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

The long-term average of the weather is called climate. Changes in the Earth's climate system can produce new weather patterns which may remain the same for more than a few decades. This phenomenon is known as climate change. It takes place when Earth's energy budget is altered by the natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climatic system. The major areas of study within climate change include global warming and its effects. Global warming refers to the long term escalation in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system. It can have a wide range of effects such as regional changes in precipitation, rising sea levels and expansion of deserts. It may also harm food security and diminish crop yields. This book studies and analyses the concepts of climate change and its utmost significance in modern times. It presents studies and researches performed by experts across the globe. This book aims to equip students and experts with the advanced topics and upcoming concepts in this area.

An overflow of water that primarily submerges the dry land is known as flood. Floods are of primary concern in the field of agriculture, civil engineering and public health. It can occur due to upslope factors, downslope factors and sometimes by coincidence. Flooding is the result of an overflow of water from water bodies, due to the gathering of rainwater, or when the river flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses. Loss of life, damage to buildings, bridges, roadways, and canals are some primary effects of the flood. The secondary effects can result in economic hardship due to a temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, food shortages, etc. Flood forecasting is an important element of flood warning. It uses forecasted precipitation and streamflow data to forecast flow rates and water levels. Planting vegetation to retain extra water, construction of floodways, dams, diversion canals, flood plains, coastal defenses, temporary perimeter barriers are few examples of flood control methods that are used to reduce or prevent the damaging effects of flood waters. This book contains some path-breaking studies on floods. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The branch of earth science which deals with the structure of the rocks and solid Earth along with the processes is known as geology. It involves the study of rock as it provides primary records of geologic history. There are various sub disciplines of geology, namely, biogeology, structural geology, stratigraphy, petrology, hydrogeology etc. A number of field, numerical and laboratory modeling methods are used to understand diverse processes related to Earth. Geological mapping is the use of geologic maps which are made to understand varied geological features. It comprises of structural mapping, surficial mapping and stratigraphic mapping. Varied dating methods are applied to provide information of geologic history and its timeline. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of geology. Most of the topics introduced herein cover new techniques and the applications of this field. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Glaciers are the massive bodies of ice that are formed from the accumulation of snow over a long period of time. Glacial geology is a scientific study that deals with the natural process that involves glaciers and the natural phenomena that are related to ice. It is an interdisciplinary field that assimilates physical geography, geophysics, geology, climatology, meteorology, etc. There are two types of glaciation, alpine and continental glaciation. The rate of movement of ice depends upon factors such as temperature of the ice, gradient of the slope, thickness of the glacier and sub glacial water dynamics. There are three zones of glaciers, namely, accumulation, ablation and snow line. Study within glaciology includes two major areas namely glacial history and the reconstruction of past glaciation. This field also deals with the study of glacial deposits and glacial erosive features on the landscape. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of glacial geology. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Photosynthesis is the life-sustaining process used by plants and other organisms that converts light energy into chemical energy. This energy is later released to fuel the activities of organisms. Photosynthesis is responsible for the production and maintenance of oxygen content in the Earth's atmosphere. During this process, the energy containing carbohydrate molecules such as sugars, are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. All of the organic compounds and most of the energy required for life on earth are supplied by photosynthesis. It begins with the absorption of energy from light by proteins containing chlorophyll pigments. The organisms which can perform photosynthesis, such as plants and algae, are called photoautotrophs. The topics included in this book on photosynthesis are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It covers in detail some existent theories and innovative concepts revolving around this area of study. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The medical treatments which are used instead of traditional therapies fall under the umbrella of alternative medicine. This includes a wide range of health care products and therapies such as acupuncture, chiropractic, magnetic field therapy, etc. The diagnostic and therapeutic disciplines which are used in conjunction with conventional medicine are known as complementary medicine. Complementary and alternative medicine often use natural substances such as foods, herbs, animal and fungal products, minerals, non-vitamin supplements, and megavitamins. Some of the other medical practices which are classified as complementary or alternative are aromatherapy, Ayurveda, herbalism, diet therapy, naturopathy, homeopathy and yoga. The topics included in this book on complementary and alternative medicine are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of these fields. This textbook is a complete source of knowledge on the present status of these fields.

Genomics is a field of biology that studies the genome. It involves the analysis and sequencing of genes to analyze the function and structure of the complete genome. A revolutionary development in genomics has been the Human Genome Project under which the complete genome sequencing of the human body was achieved. This was possible due to an amalgamation of efficient sequencing technologies and utilization of bioinformatics resources. The genome analysis of an organism usually consists of three stages- DNA sequencing, representation of the original chromosome using knowledge of the assembly of the DNA sequence, and the analysis and annotation of that representation. Some of the areas of research in genomics are functional genomics, structural genomics, metagenomics, epigenomics, etc. Such studies contribute to the advancement of biotechnology, medicine, bioengineering and conservation. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different areas of genomics and its applications. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies and evolution of this field are examined in detail. This book is a collective contribution of a renowned group of international experts.

Molecular biology is a biological branch that is concerned with the molecular aspects of biological activity that occurs between biomolecules within a cell. It observes and regulates the interactions between proteins, DNA, RNA and their biosynthesis. In molecular biology specific techniques are combined with the techniques and concepts from genetics and biochemistry. It is the study of molecular basis of various processes including replication, translation, transcription and cell function. Some of the common techniques of this domain include molecular cloning, gel electrophoresis: macromolecule blotting. This book presents the complex subject of molecular biology in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. The topics covered in this extensive book deal with the core subjects of this biological field. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and experts in this field.