Kernekemi, fotokemi og stråling

Economic development is impacted significantly by conventional energy sources, which are hazardous to humans and the environment. To meet the energy demand and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the world is shifting towards alternate renewable energy sources. Photovoltaics (PV) is the most common distributed energy source for microgrid formation and one of the world's top renewable energy sources because of their modular design, minimal operational noise, and ease of maintenance. Solar photovoltaic systems, which are photovoltaic panels that turn sunlight into electricity, are one of the most common renewable energy sources. PV production is strongly dependent on solar irradiation, temperature, and other weather conditions. Predicting solar irradiance implies predicting solar power generation one or more steps ahead of time. Prediction increases photovoltaic system development and operation while providing numerous economic benefits to energy suppliers. There are numerous applications that employ prediction to improve power grid operation and planning, with the appropriate time-resolution of the forecast. Stability and regulation necessitate knowledge of solar irradiation over the following few seconds. Reserve management and load following require knowledge of solar irradiation for the next several minutes or hours. To function properly, scheduling and unit commitment requires knowledge about the next few days of solar irradiation. It is crucial to precisely measure solar irradiation since the major issue with solar energy is that it fluctuates because of its variability. Grid operators can control the demand and supply of power and construct the best solar PV plant with the help of accurate and reliable solar irradiance predictions.Electric utilities must generate enough energy to balance supply and demand. The electric sector has consequently focused on Solar PV forecasting to assist its management system, which is crucial for the growth of additional power generation, such as microgrids. Forecasting solar irradiance has always been important to renewable energy generation since solar energy generation is location and time-specific. When the estimated solar generation is available, the grid will function more consistently in unpredictable situations since solar energy generates some quantity of power every day of the year, even on cloudy days.

This book is a sequel of The Physics of Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors (1997), which covered the basic physics of QWIPs. In the intervening 27 years, QWIP properties pertinent to infrared detection are much better understood, and QWIP technology has become a mainstream, widely deployed infrared technology. The main progress is the ability to know the QWIP absorption quantum efficiency quantitatively through rigorous electromagnetic modeling. The lack of theoretical prediction has impeded QWIP development for a long time. Generally, an arbitrary choice of detector structures yields substantial variations of absorption properties, and QWIP was regarded as a low quantum efficiency detector. With the advent of electromagnetic modeling, quantum efficiency of any detector geometry can be known exactly and be optimized to attain a large satisfactory value. Consequently, all properties of QWIPs are predictable, not unlike prevailing silicon devices. This unique characteristic enables QWIP to be the most manufacturable long wavelength infrared technology in mass production. This book by K K Choi, a co-inventor of QWIPs, will capture this exciting development.Based on the materials expounded in the book, the reader will know key performance metrics in infrared detection, in-depth knowledge of QWIP material and structural designs, array production, its application, and practical knowledge of electromagnetic modeling. In addition, the book will describe using micro- and nano-structures to enhance the emission properties of active and passive optical emitters, similar to detectors. The application of rigorous electromagnetic modeling to optical emitters is new to the optoelectronic community. The resonator-pixel emitter structure with its modeling method will no doubt be able to attract substantial academic and industrial attention in years to come.

This book addresses novel C(sp3)-C(sp2) and C(sp3)-heteroatom bond-forming reactions. Two strategies are given in the book using photoredox or electrochemical methods. The first strategy describes that the hydroalkylation of alkynes via photoredox-mediated Ni/Ir dual catalysis produces trisubstituted alkenes as versatile synthetic building blocks for the synthesis of pharmaceutical agents and natural products. High regioselectivity and E/Z-selectivity were achieved by introducing silyl groups that can provide steric and electronic effects to these selectivities with extensive opportunities for post-functionalization.The second strategy enables the development of C(sp3)-heteroatom bond-forming reactions through the electrochemical activation of C(sp3)-B bonds. The bonding of heteroatoms to carbon atoms has been an enduring subject of investigation for organic chemists. The function of most molecules is mainly determined by heteroatoms attached to the carbon atom, althoughthe backbone structure of organic compounds comprises carbon fragments.

This book comprehensively describes organic electronic devices developed in the past decades. It not only covers the mainstream devices including organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic photovoltaics (OPVs), and organic thin-film transistors (OTFTs) but also includes devices of recent interest such as organic immune transistors, organic photocatalysis devices, and themoelectrical devices. The book starts from the introduction of basic theory of organic semiconductor materials and devices, which acquaints the readers with the concepts of each type of device described in the following chapters. It also discusses the working principles, device layout, and fabrication process of these devices. The book is intended for undergraduate and postgraduate students who are interested in organic electronics, researchers/engineers working in the field of organic electronic devices/systems.

Radiation is described as the particles or energies emitted through radioactive matter. The most common types of radiations are gamma rays, alpha particles, X-rays and beta particles. Radiation detectors refer to those devices that detect and transmit information about incoming radiation. They are useful in biology, medicine, physics and geology. Generally, radiation detectors are not capable of capturing radiated particles and they do not even observe the radiation itself. The detectors search for the trails which radiation has left behind. The objective behind the design of detectors is the creation of an environment where radiation signature can be easily written. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of detectors for particle radiation. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Radiation is described as the particles or energies emitted through radioactive matter. The most common types of radiations are gamma rays, alpha particles, X-rays and beta particles. Radiation detectors refer to those devices that detect and transmit information about incoming radiation. They are useful in biology, medicine, physics and geology. Generally, radiation detectors are not capable of capturing radiated particles and they do not even observe the radiation itself. The detectors search for the trails which radiation has left behind. The objective behind the design of detectors is the creation of an environment where radiation signature can be easily written. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of detectors for particle radiation. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Radiation is described as the particles or energies emitted through radioactive matter. The most common types of radiations are gamma rays, alpha particles, X-rays and beta particles. Radiation detectors refer to those devices that detect and transmit information about incoming radiation. They are useful in biology, medicine, physics and geology. Generally, radiation detectors are not capable of capturing radiated particles and they do not even observe the radiation itself. The detectors search for the trails which radiation has left behind. The objective behind the design of detectors is the creation of an environment where radiation signature can be easily written. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of detectors for particle radiation. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Radiation is described as the particles or energies emitted through radioactive matter. The most common types of radiations are gamma rays, alpha particles, X-rays and beta particles. Radiation detectors refer to those devices that detect and transmit information about incoming radiation. They are useful in biology, medicine, physics and geology. Generally, radiation detectors are not capable of capturing radiated particles and they do not even observe the radiation itself. The detectors search for the trails which radiation has left behind. The objective behind the design of detectors is the creation of an environment where radiation signature can be easily written. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of detectors for particle radiation. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Particle physics is a branch of physics that is involved in the study of the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and the interactions between them. It is also referred to as high energy physics because many subatomic particles are absent in nature under normal circumstances but can be created and detected during energetic collisions of other particles. In particle physics, large particle accelerators are used for fundamental research. Particle accelerator is a machine that uses an electric field to speed-up and increase the energy of a beam of particles and the magnetic fields steer and focus them. They are used to study and explore the structure of the atomic nucleus and other aspects of particle physics. The modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic particles such as electrons, protons and neutrons. It also studies particles such as photons, neutrinos and muons, which are produced by radioactive and scattering processes. This book contains studies on the theory and applications of particle physics. It attempts to further enlighten the readers about the new concepts in this field.

Particle physics is a branch of physics that is involved in the study of the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and the interactions between them. It is also referred to as high energy physics because many subatomic particles are absent in nature under normal circumstances but can be created and detected during energetic collisions of other particles. In particle physics, large particle accelerators are used for fundamental research. Particle accelerator is a machine that uses an electric field to speed-up and increase the energy of a beam of particles and the magnetic fields steer and focus them. They are used to study and explore the structure of the atomic nucleus and other aspects of particle physics. The modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic particles such as electrons, protons and neutrons. It also studies particles such as photons, neutrinos and muons, which are produced by radioactive and scattering processes. This book contains studies on the theory and applications of particle physics. It attempts to further enlighten the readers about the new concepts in this field.

A particle accelerator refers to a machine that produces a beam of fast-moving, electrically charged atomic or subatomic particles. Large accelerators are employed for fundamental research in particle physics. The largest accelerator in the world is the Large Hadron Collider. The two fundamental types of accelerators are electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators. Electrostatic particle accelerators make use of static electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types of electrostatic particle accelerators are the Cockcroft-Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator. Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators involve the use changing electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles. These accelerators can be linear or circular. The particles are accelerated in a straight line in linear accelerators. In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they attain sufficient energy. Some applications of accelerators are particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, and ion implanters for the manufacturing of semiconductors. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of particle accelerators and colliders. It is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on this topic.

A particle accelerator refers to a machine that produces a beam of fast-moving, electrically charged atomic or subatomic particles. Large accelerators are employed for fundamental research in particle physics. The largest accelerator in the world is the Large Hadron Collider. The two fundamental types of accelerators are electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators. Electrostatic particle accelerators make use of static electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types of electrostatic particle accelerators are the Cockcroft-Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator. Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators involve the use changing electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles. These accelerators can be linear or circular. The particles are accelerated in a straight line in linear accelerators. In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they attain sufficient energy. Some applications of accelerators are particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, and ion implanters for the manufacturing of semiconductors. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of particle accelerators and colliders. It is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on this topic.

A particle accelerator refers to a machine that produces a beam of fast-moving, electrically charged atomic or subatomic particles. Large accelerators are employed for fundamental research in particle physics. The largest accelerator in the world is the Large Hadron Collider. The two fundamental types of accelerators are electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators. Electrostatic particle accelerators make use of static electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types of electrostatic particle accelerators are the Cockcroft-Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator. Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators involve the use changing electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles. These accelerators can be linear or circular. The particles are accelerated in a straight line in linear accelerators. In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they attain sufficient energy. Some applications of accelerators are particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, and ion implanters for the manufacturing of semiconductors. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of particle accelerators and colliders. It is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on this topic.

Radiobiology is a field of medical science that studies the action of ionizing radiation on biological tissues and their cellular and molecular components. Ionizing radiation can cause severe harmful impacts in living beings but it can also provide health benefits for treating cancer and thyrotoxicosis through radiation therapy. Ionizing subatomic particles can be classified into five types, namely, alpha particles, beta particles, positrons, gamma rays and X-rays. The most common impact of ionizing radiation is that it may induce cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. The administration of high doses of ionizing radiation can cause visually dramatic radiation burns and may prove fatal due to acute radiation syndrome. Therefore, controlled doses of ionizing radiation are administered for medical imaging and radiotherapy. There are four factors that determine the success or failure of standard clinical radiation treatment. These factors include repair of DNA damage, redistribution of cells in the cell cycle, repopulation, and reoxygenation of hypoxic tumor areas. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of radiobiology. Scientists and students actively engaged in the study of ionizing radiation will find it full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Synchrotron radiation (SR) refers to the electromagnetic radiation produced when relativistic charged particles experience an acceleration perpendicular to their velocity. It is created artificially in particle accelerators or naturally by fast electrons moving through magnetic fields. An SR source is a source that emits electromagnetic radiation (EM) through a storage ring or bending magnets for technical and scientific purposes. The techniques used in SR include imaging and microscopy, X-ray diffraction and scattering, and spectroscopy. SR has numerous applications in medical imaging, particularly, in mammography, monochromatic computed tomography, intravenous coronary angiography and bronchography. It has shown to be an extremely powerful instrument for the study of magnetic materials and phenomena due to its unique properties including adaptable time structure, wide energy spectrum, and variable light polarization. This book aims to understand the various light sources, techniques and applications of synchrotron radiation and magnetism. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

"The proceedings are based on the 14th International Symposium on Nuclear and Environmental Radiochemical Analysis held in York, UK on 12-15 September 2022"-- Title page verso.

This book describes various nonlinear phenomena in the radiation from plasmas, which are both fundamentally important because of the rich physics behind these phenomena, and also practically important as the most informative way to study laboratory and astrophysical plasmas is by analysing their radiation.

Combination Therapies Involving Photodynamic Therapy reviews the current state of development of PDT and presents the foreseeable advancements of combination approaches to therapeutic strategies.

The original idea that electromagnetic waves propagate in every direction with the same universal constant, the speed of light, corresponds with Maxwell's Theory of Electrodynamics in 1865. With the introduction of the Laser it became clear that it is also possible to emit a beam of light in one single direction while the speed of light in the directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation equals zero. In general, the laser frequencies are so high that the Laser radiation will not be harmful for the human brains and organs.Recent developments however demonstrate that it is very likely that Eastern countries like China and Russia are already doing experiments with Extreme Low Frequency (ELF) Masers. The fundamental principle on which Lasers and Masers are operating is the Phenomenon of Resonance. The fundamental Condition for Resonance is that the dimensions of the cavity are at least the dimension of the wave length. The wavelength of a frequency of 2.000 [Hz] equals 150 [km]. This means that to build an ELF Maser for a radio frequency of 2.000 [Hz] a resonance cavity is needed with the dimensions of at least 150 [km] which is about five times the size of New York.

This textbook highlights the fundamentals, applications and research frontiers of the civil-use non-power nuclear technology, especially the radioisotopes and radiation technology. The wide scope of applications and the active research in the subject field calls for a comprehensive textbook that not only explains the basic principles but also links the fundamentals to the various application fields. The book systematically leads students from isotope preparation, to nuclear analysis, and to the civil applications in areas such as chemical engineering, agriculture, medicine, environmental protection and materials modification. The application in the energy field is briefly introduced. The book can be used as good teaching materials for upper undergraduate and graduate students in nuclear science and technology. It is also a handy reference book for researchers and engineers in the above mentioned fields.

This book explores the modification of various synthesis processes to enhance the photocatalytic activity in varied applications in the fields of environmental remediation and energy production. It outlines the enhancement of photocatalytic activity via alloys synthesis, thin film coatings, electro-spun nanofibers and 3D printed photocatalysts. The book further states the diverse applications of materials for degrading organic pollutants and airborne pathogens, improving indoor air quality and as a potential antimicrobial agent. The application of photocatalysts in green organic synthesis, biomedical field and in hydrogen evolution are also presented in the book. It covers theoretical studies of photocatalytic material and conversion of CO2 to value added chemical feed stocks. The book is of relevance to researchers in academia and industry alike in the fields of material science, environmental science & technology, photocatalytic applications andin energy generation and conversion.

This collection explores state-of-the-art methods and protocols for research on photodynamic therapy (PDT) and its use in a wide range of medical applications, from antiviral to anticancer. Beginning with an extensive section on in vitro and in vivo models, the volume continues with chapters on oxygen-independent photosensitizers, next-generation photosensitization strategies, contemporary insights into the immunomodulatory effects of PDT, antimicrobial effects of PDT, as well as a variety of general biochemical and molecular biological techniques. Written for the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology series, chapters include the kind of detailed implementation advice that ensures successful results in the lab. Thorough and authoritative, Photodynamic Therapy: Methods and Protocols serves as an ideal source of inspiration for both new and established PDT scientists and a guide for designing innovative research programs in this continuously advancing and multidisciplinary field.

Visible light is an abundant source of energy. While the conversion of light energy into electrical energy (photovoltaics) is highly developed and commercialized, the use of visible light in chemical synthesis is far less explored. Chemical photocatalysts that mimic principles of biological photosynthesis utilize visible light to drive endothermic or kinetically hindered reactions. This work summarizes in 16 chapters the state of the art and the challenges of this emerging future technology.