Bøger af Jesse Harasta

*Includes pictures. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading. Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century, like the Greeks and the Romans, but of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. At the heart of the fascination is the most visited and the most spectacular of Late Classic Maya cities: Chichén Itzá. Chichén Itzá was inhabited for hundreds of years and was a very influential center in the later years of Maya civilization. At its height, Chichén Itzá may have had over 30,000 inhabitants, and with a spectacular pyramid, enormous ball court, observatory and several temples, the builders of this city exceeded even those at Uxmal in developing the use of columns and exterior relief decoration. Of particular interest at Chichén Itzá is the sacred cenote, a sinkhole was a focus for Maya rituals around water. Because adequate supplies of water, which rarely collected on the surface of the limestone based Yucatan, were essential for adequate agricultural production, the Maya here considered it of primary importance. Underwater archaeology carried out in the cenote at Chichén Itzá revealed that offerings to the Maya rain deity Chaac (which may have included people) were tossed into the sinkhole. Although Chichén Itzá was around for hundreds of years, it had a relatively short period of dominance in the region, lasting from about 800-950 A.D. Today, tourists are taken by guides to a building called the Nunnery for no good reason other than the small rooms reminded the Spaniards of a nunnery back home. Similarly the great pyramid at Chichén Itzá is designated El Castillo ("The Castle"), which it almost certainly was not, while the observatory is called El Caracol ("The Snail") for its spiral staircase. Of course, the actual names for these places were lost as the great Maya cities began to lose their populations, one by one. Chichén Itzá was partially abandoned in 948, and the culture of the Maya survived in a disorganized way until it was revived at Mayapán. Mayapán emerged first as a minor settlement in the orbit of Chichén, but it slowly came to replace it after the larger city's trade connections with the Toltecs of Tula crumbled and it suffered a staggering defeat by Mayapán's armies. The building styles and art in their city show both admiring references to the great Chichén Itzá as well as an attempt to position Mayapán as a more orthodox heir of Maya tradition. At the same time, they emulated many features and could not escape the tremendous influences - especially in religion - of Chichén. This is seen in the fact that many of the most important buildings in the new city appear to be small-scale reproductions of ones in Chichén. Due in part to the fact that it has long been overshadowed by Chichén Itzá, a lot excavation and scholarly research on the site has only come about in recent decades, and even though there is still plenty of work to do, a lot of information about life in Mayapán has been unearthed. At its height, Mayapán may have boasted a population of over 15,000, and archaeologists have had their hands full trying to discover and restore the several thousand buildings both inside Mayapán's walls and outside them. Chichén Itzá & Mayapán: The Most Famous Mayan Capitals of the Postclassic Period comprehensively covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation surrounding the purpose of Chichén Itzá and the debate over the buildings. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Maya's most famous cities like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading "My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm." - Queen Elizabeth I On July 12, 1588, the legendary Armada started for the English channel. The Spanish plan was to take this invasion, led by the Duke of Parma, to the coast of southeast England, where they would be released to conquer Elizabethan England for the Spanish monarch and Catholic Christendom. The Armada included over 150 ships, 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, and it boasted a firepower of 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns. Just leaving port itself took the entire Armada two days. As everyone who has been taught history now knows, the Armada was one of the most famous military debacles in history. Now whether it was simple mathematical miscalculation or plain bad luck, coupled with English fire ships assailing the Spanish ships, the Armada was decisively defeated. The Armada ultimately found its reluctant way home in awful conditions, having permanently lost over one third of the ships, and on the Irish coast, the Armada had suffered further losses. Not yet knowing what had happened to the Armada, internal English gentry and militias sought to secure and protect England. This is when Elizabeth I consolidated her image as mother-protector of her people; inspecting her troops, long and to this day a regal tradition, at Tilbury on August 8, 1588, Elizabeth adorned herself in honor and rallied her people to fight the Spanish. When the Armada was indeed defeated, Elizabeth was hailed as a great savior of England, one who was willing to risk her own life to protect her children and her kingdom. In actuality, Elizabeth's luck had not been insignificant, but her preparations had also been immaculate, and indeed her pageantry had paid off. The monarch's procession to a service of thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral further solidified public support, and the vanquishing of the Armada became an unbelievably potent propaganda tool to warn away other sovereigns and kingdoms looking at England with desire. Rightly or wrongly, the English people including many of Elizabeth's Catholic subjects who did not relish the idea of Spanish rule interpreted this victory as a manifestation of divine favor and of England's sacrosanct status under its virgin ruler. What was ignored in the middle of the celebrations was that the Anglo-Spanish War did continue and would continue until 1604. In reality, on the facts it seems that this conflict often did favor Spain. After all, the Spanish retained the Netherlands, thus hanging the scepter of possible invasion from that side. The Spanish Armada looks at the ill-fated expedition from its origins to its demise. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the Armada like never before, in no time at all.

Um homem caolho, com uma capa cinza e um chapéu de abas largas apoiando-se em uma bengala. Um andarilho que aparece quando menos esperado, trazendo triunfo ou perdição. O deus da profecia, poesia e destino. Um metamorfo. Um feiticeiro. O deus Odin representa uma figura dramática na mitologia nórdica e permanece uma parte da imaginação popular. Ele é a inspiração para personagens como Gandalf o Cinza de J.R.R. Tolkien, e ainda faz parte de literatura moderna tão variada quanto histórias em quadrinhos da Marvel bem como o romance de Neil Gaiman Deuses Americanos. Ao lado de seu filho Thor, Odin é um dos deuses nórdicos mais bem conhecidos, e é bem fácil esquecer-se que outrora ele esteve no centro de um panteão devotamente adorado por milhões de europeus durante a Idade Média. Odin possui numerosos nomes e títulos (mais de 200 de acordo com uma fonte), mas seu título mais conhecido é o "Pai de Tudo", o co-criador da Terra ("Midgard"), da humanidade e todas as criaturas que habitam esse mundo. Importante notar que ele também é o deus da profecia, êxtase, e poesia, papéis todos profundamente conectados no mundo nórdico, tendo em vista que a linha separando o poeta do profeta era tênue e eles eram tidos como possuindo uma inspiração por uma espécie de fúria extática. Esses papéis eram conectados pelo fato de Odin patrocinar o conhecimento, especialmente o conhecimento místico, já que ele era o descobridor de runas mágicas e músicas que então passou para a humanidade. Isso não foi obtido sem sacrifício - ele teve de arrancar um de seus próprios olhos e permanecer morto por nove dias com fim de adquiri-los. Odin era um deus da vida e também da morte, e famoso por tomar as almas de guerreiros que morriam em combate de volta ao seu reino de Valhalla. Seu papel estava ligado à sua posição como um deus da guerra, uma posição que talvez não pareça evidente a um leitor moderno para um deus do conhecimento e sabedoria. Entretanto, Odin era o rei dos deuses e o mestre de Asgard; portanto, no entendimento nórdico, uma de suas tarefas cruciais era a defesa daquele reino através de poderio militar quando necessário. Seus seguidores vivos iriam invocá-lo durante batalhas, e dizia-se que ele levou campeões e até mesmo exércitos de humanos ao triunfo. Um martelo que mortal algum pode levantar. Um deus da tempestade com cabelos de fogo. Um alienígena-herói-deus de histórias em quadrinho que defende a humanidade. A suástica. Até mesmo o dia da semana, "Thursday" - quinta feira em inglês - tem seu nome ("Thor's Day", o dia de Thor). Apesar do virtual desaparecimento da religião e mitologia nórdica vários séculos atrás, a sociedade moderna ainda frequentemente depara-se com o deus da tempestade Thor, que continua a ser trazido de volta à vida na forma da literatura, e foi recentemente o protagonista de filmes de grande orçamento de Hollywood. Por que é que este deus, dentre as centenas (senão milhares) de divindades entregues à lixeira da história ao dar lugar para as religiões hoje mais comuns do mundo, captura tanto a imaginação das pessoas nos dias atuais? Uma melhor compreensão da atração de Thor pode ser encontrada em quase todo aspecto da história e da evolução da figura ao decorrer dos séculos, incluindo as origens do deus, as imagens evocativas usadas para descrevê-lo, e até mesmo paralelos entre Thor e outros deuses e heróis similares. Tudo isso foi extensivamente explorado pela literatura, em histórias sobre Thor encontradas na Edda prosaica e poética, e a conexão que sociedades tiveram com Thor por centenas de anos, chegando até mesmo à contemporaneidade. Essa obra também examina o declínio e substituição da mitologia nórdica pelo cristianismo, as razões pelas quais Thor foi frequentemente o último deus adorado pelos nórdicos, e o que restou hoje do Thorismo, incluindo seus paralelos em outras fés, seu papel no reaviva

La razón de la existencia de la mayoría de las ciudades del mundo es obvia para el estudiante de Geografía: Nueva York y Shanghai controlan puertos profundos y se levantan a ambos lados de grandes ríos que traen mercancías del interior; París y Londres se hallan en los puntos de cruce de ríos que atraviesan todo el país; Johannesburgo se asienta sobre una gran montaña de mineral de oro, y Moscú y Madrid se levantan en el corazón de sus grandes naciones, y son capaces de controlar incluso los rincones más distantes de sus respectivos territorios.La Meca sin embargo, es diferente, ya que la ciudad existe únicamente porque es sagrada. Incluso siglos antes del nacimiento del profeta Mahoma, los líderes de La Meca determinaron que su ciudad sería el lugar sagrado preeminente de Arabia occidental y establecieron una tregua para los peregrinos en la ciudad. Debido a este proceso, uno de los efectos fue que La Meca se convirtiría en un centro para algo que hoy en día llamaríamos turismo, ya que incluso los visitantes de la antigüedad necesitaban lugares para comer, beber y dormir. Al mismo tiempo, podían hacer ofrendas en los templos y marcharse de La Meca con recuerdos de su tiempo. A muchos también les parecía conveniente llevar sus productos a los mercados de La Meca, donde podían encontrar visitantes que traían mercaderías interesantes de toda la región, y la ciudad también disfrutaba de estatus de centro de comercio.La Meca siempre ha sido fundamental para la fe, pero ha tenido una historia geopolítica turbulenta, tanto por los conflictos dentro del Islam como entre las naciones vecinas en el Medio Oriente. Como resultado, su historia a menudo es pasada por alto, incluso cuando la mayoría de la gente está familiarizada con la ciudad. Medina, sin embargo, es completamente diferente. Incluso siglos antes del nacimiento del profeta Mahoma, los judíos se asentaron en la zona para escapar de la persecución a manos de los babilonios y los romanos, es decir, la zona y su entorno árido trajeron gente precisamente porque no era un área atractiva o rica en recursos naturales. De hecho, la ciudad destinada a convertirse en la segunda ciudad más sagrada del Islam ganó ese sitio simplemente por quedar de paso en las rutas comerciales a la ciudad religiosa de La Meca, que atrajo mercaderes y peregrinos en un número lo suficientemente grande como para convertirla en un centro comercial. Por supuesto, La Meca es más conocida por ser la ciudad más sagrada del Islam, y es venerada como el lugar de nacimiento de Mahoma y el lugar donde Allah le reveló el Corán por primera vez. Sin embargo, el Profeta pasó mucho tiempo en Medina, especialmente cuando él y sus partidarios se encontraron en conflicto con los habitantes de la Meca. Usando Medina como base, Mahoma finalmente tomó la Meca, y ambas ciudades se convirtieron en partes integrales del Califato que siguió. Esto significó que incluso cuando la historia trajo cambios geopolíticos, Medina siguió siendo una ciudad de importancia religiosa para todos los musulmanes, y aunque a menudo se pasa por alto su turbulenta historia, muchas personas siguen muy familiarizadas con la ciudad.

*Includes pictures *Includes Spanish accounts of the Aztec's human sacrifices *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading "They strike open the wretched Indian's chest with flint knives and hastily tear out the palpitating heart which, with the blood, they present to the idols...They cut off the arms, thighs and head, eating the arms and thighs at ceremonial banquets. The head they hang up on a beam, and the body is...given to the beasts of prey." - Bernal Diaz, a Spaniard who described the Aztec's human sacrifice From the moment Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés first found and confronted them, the Aztecs have fascinated the world, and they continue to hold a unique place both culturally and in pop culture. Nearly 500 years after the Spanish conquered their mighty empire, the Aztecs are often remembered today for their major capital, Tenochtitlan, as well as being fierce conquerors of the Valley of Mexico who often engaged in human sacrifice rituals. Ironically, and unlike the Mayans, the Aztecs are not widely viewed or remembered with nuance, in part because their own leader burned extant Aztec writings and rewrote a mythologized history explaining his empire's dominance less than a century before the Spanish arrived. While the Mayans are remembered for their astronomy, numeral system, and calendar, the Aztecs have primarily been remembered in a far narrower way, despite continuing to be a source of pride to Mexicans through the centuries. As a result, even though the Aztecs continue to interest people across the world centuries after their demise, it has fallen on archaeologists and historians to try to determine the actual history, culture, and lives of the Aztecs from the beginning to the end, relying on excavations, primary accounts, and more. That said, more is known about Aztec religious practices than any other aspect of their culture, mostly because the major element in the public ceremonies was focused on human sacrifice. The rituals were apparently so gruesome that they horrified even the Spanish, who were not exactly known for their gentility when it came to war and religious fervor. A Spaniard named Bernal Diaz described what happened at one religious ceremony: "They have a most horrid and abominable custom which truly ought to be punished and which until now we have seen in no other part, and this is that, whenever they wish to ask something of the idols, in order that their plea may find more acceptance, they take many girls and boys and even adults, and in the presence of these idols they open their chests while they are still alive and take out their hearts and entrails and burn them before the idols, offering the smoke as sacrifice. Some of us have seen this, and they say it is the most terrible and frightful thing they have ever witnessed." Naturally, Cortés and other Spaniards depicted the Aztecs as savages greatly in need of conversion to Catholicism. The Spanish used the Aztec's religious practices as a justification for Cortés' conquest, but even though the Spanish attempted to burn as much as they could, plenty of information about Aztec mythology also survived. The Mythology and Religion of the Aztec examines the history and legacy of the religion practiced by the famous Mesoamerican empire. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Aztec religion and mythology like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes a table of contents King Arthur is one of the most famous names in history, and his name still evokes visions of fantasy, chivalry, bravery, and more even today. Arthur remains a pop culture fixture around the globe, made famous in various Arthurian tales written by writers like Chretien de Troyes. Arthur came to embody the ideals of the Middle Ages: strength, chivalry, bravery, and more. Along the way, his Excalibur sword, the Holy Grail, his queen, and more have all become household words. Arthur has long been identified as a folk hero, and there are countless tales that comprise the Arthurian legend, but was there an actual person that the original stories were based on? People still search for the seeds of truth in the Knights of the Round Table, and the historical figure that inspired the Arthurian tales. Of course, as with all great myths, and even those with a kernel of truth behind them, there is no "real" Arthur. Arthur is now comprised of the works written by diverse storytellers, most of which have built upon the ancient stories and possibly history. It is from there that a primordial seed of myth remains at the heart of all the retellings. At the same time, Arthur's story is one of transformation, as he is brought from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance and more modern times. And that story also includes the famous contemporaries in his stories and other important historical figures, like Geoffrey of Monmouth, the imprisoned Sir Thomas Mallory and Walt Disney. When looking for the historical and mythical Arthur, scholars try to understand how the Arthur of these tales and of others like Disney's Sword in the Stone and Monty Python and the Holy Grail came to be. What are the origins of the Arthur legend and what can they tell people about the past? What is the historical basis for King Arthur, if any? There are few characters in the English language more iconic than Robin Hood. Emerging out of the ballads of the High Middle Ages and surviving through numerous permutations to the present day, the green-clad archer has become an icon. Today he represents a playful, irreverent and cunning resistance to corruption and injustice, associated primarily with stealing from the rich and giving to the poor. Robin Hood's selfless acts of helping the masses at the expense of himself (by not keeping his treasure) have led to contemporary figures like Bill Gates being called "Modern Day Robin Hoods", and when a British man robbed a bank in 2013 and handed out the money to homeless people before he was arrested and imprisoned, the name Robin Hood was naturally in the news once more. Robin Hood is a celebrated folk hero and a kind of good thief, but the earliest stories about Robin Hood depict a far different character. The first Robin Hood was often a brutal and selfish yet also honorable figure, an anti-hero loved (perhaps paradoxically) by many social classes and loathed by authorities. When the notorious Gunpowder Plot was discovered at the beginning of the 17th century, the Earl of Salisbury condemned Guy Fawkes and the conspirators for being "Robin Hoods". The transformation of Robin Hood over the centuries has left many scholars attempting to find the origins behind the original story. Like King Arthur, some have even sought a historical figure that might serve as the basis for Robin Hood, while others have sought out mythological origins to see if Robin Hood's character evolved out of a mythological figure. When looking for the historical and mythical figure, scholars try to understand how the Robin Hood of these tales and came to be. What are the origins of Robin Hood and what can they tell people about the past? What is the historical basis for Robin Hood, if any?

*Includes pictures. *Includes historic accounts about the myth of El Dorado. *Includes a bibliography and footnotes for further reading. Alongside the famous Lost City of Atlantis, perhaps no mythological city has captured the imaginations of people or been the source for exploration quite like El Dorado, the fabled city of gold that the Spanish believed was located somewhere in South America. The origins of the Spaniards' belief in the existence of the mythical city was based on their rumors surrounding the tribal chief of the Muisca in present-day Colombia; the Spanish heard that his initiation included covering himself with gold dust and diving into Lake Guatavita. Of course, if the chief could cover himself in gold, he must have access to a lot of it, and around this figure, the myth of El Dorado sprang up as the location of it. Naturally, the belief in the existence of El Dorado propelled it from being merely a city to an entire empire itself, and this spurred several journeys in the 16th century, including one by Francisco Pizarro's half-brother, Gonzalo, and another by Sir Walter Raleigh. Although none of these journeys actually discovered such a place, they resulted in plenty of lives lost and a lot of exploration of the heart of South America. Moreover, despite the fact none of the explorers actually found El Dorado, the rumors and journeys only cemented the belief that such a place existed, and El Dorado was actually located on maps made by several European nations for centuries. As folklorist Jim Griffith once put it, "El Dorado shifted geographical locations until finally it simply meant a source of untold riches somewhere in the Americas."In fact, it would not be until about the early 19th century that explorer Alexander von Humboldt disproved El Dorado's existence, at least in the spot it was assumed to be located for over 200 years. Although no El Dorado was ever found, the myth still fascinates people today, and it remains a pop culture fixture around the globe. El Dorado is also still used as a metaphor not only for places where people seek to get rich quick but even as a mentality and mindset, much like the notion of the American Dream. El Dorado: The Search for the Fabled City of Gold chronicles the origins behind the myth and the history of the actual journeys that sought to discover the city. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about El Dorado like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures. *Includes ancient accounts describing the Celts and their religious practices. *Includes footnotes and a bibliography. "Throughout all of Gaul there are two classes of people who are treated with dignity and honor. This does not include the common people, who are little better than slaves and never have a voice in councils. Many of these align themselves with a patron voluntarily, whether because of debt or heavy tribute or out of fear of retribution by some other powerful person. Once they do this, they have given up all rights and are scarcely better than servants. The two powerful classes mentioned above are the Druids and the warriors. Druids are concerned with religious matters, public and private sacrifices, and divination." - Julius Caesar The Celts are one of the most well-known groups in Europe and one of the least understood. Depending on which classifications are used, the Celts are also one of the oldest civilizations in Europe. In the centuries before Christ, the Celts were spread out across much of continental Europe, and though they are mostly identified with Gaul, evidence suggests they also spread as far as Portugal. Though they were spread out across Europe before the height of the Roman Empire, most people associate the Celts with the British Isles today, particularly Ireland and Scotland. After they had been relegated to those smaller regions as a result of the Romans and other migrations, the culture of the Celts as it is currently understood began to congeal during the Early Middle Ages, and Celtic culture, folklore, and legend have all become inextricably intertwined with Irish history and British history as a whole. Historically, Celtic cultures differ from their English and French neighbors in a number of ways, including social organization, language, values and economic systems, but one of the most captivating of these has always been their myths. Celtic Myths, which can be read in translation without needing special training in grammar, are more accessible than the Celtic languages, and unlike the other distinctive features that have faded over the centuries, myths still have their immediacy and power when read today. While much has undoubtedly been lost from the ancient Celts over time, medieval manuscripts help scholars understand how Celtic myths have reached the form they have today. Like many ancient belief systems, Celtic mythology shares Indo-European roots, meaning Celtic beliefs have cousins in related societies like the Norse, Greeks, Romans and Slavs, with a foundation of shared mythmaking that goes back several millennia. Descriptions of Celtic mythology by their contemporaries, including the Ancient Romans and Greeks, provide a hazy picture, while the tales recorded by Christian monks and undoubtedly bear the stamp of their own religious affiliations. Celtic Mythology: The Religion of the Ancient Celts examines the history and legacy of the religion practiced by the Ancient Celts. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Celtic mythology like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures of important places and historic art depicting Athena and other Greek gods and goddesses. *Explains the historical origins of the goddess and the mythological tales about her. *Includes a Bibliography for further reading. "I begin to sing of Pallas Athene, the glorious goddess, bright-eyed, inventive, unbending of heart, pure virgin, saviour of cities, courageous, Tritogeneia. From his awful head wise Zeus himself bare her arrayed in warlike arms of flashing gold, and awe seized all the gods as they gazed. But Athena sprang quickly from the immortal head and stood before Zeus who holds the aegis, shaking a sharp spear: great Olympus began to reel horribly at the might of the bright-eyed goddess, and earth round about cried fearfully, and the sea was moved and tossed with dark waves, while foam burst forth suddenly..." - "The Hymn To Athena", attributed to Homer For the ancient Greeks, there were few divine beings more important, and more generous, to humanity than the goddess Athena, who was also called "Pallas," "Pallas Athena" and (to the Romans) "Minerva." The daughter of Zeus, Athena was famous as a virgin warrior woman who was born from her father's skull bearing a helmet, shield and spear, but she was far more than simply a warrior goddess. She was at heart the patronage of civilization and all of the arts that made advanced human society possible. She was the mistress of weaving, navigation, craftsmanship, and she gave her patronage to defensive wars, wise laws, and the "city" itself. Since the city-state, known as a "Polis" by the Greeks, was the center of Ancient Greek life, law and politics, this made her all the more important as a deity, especially since she lent her name to one of the most famous of them all: Athens. The pervasive nature of her influence in the Greeks' everyday life has ensured that Athena remains one of the most instantly recognizable goddesses. She is mentioned in diverse works like Hesiod's Theogony, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and several of Plato's philosophical texts. These works shine light on what contemporary Greeks said about their goddess and how they understood the relationship she had with humanity. At the same time, there were temples, festivals, and everyday forms of worship that the Greeks dedicated to her. What did the worship of this goddess provide for her worshipers? How did belief in her existence fulfill their spiritual needs? How was she different from other members of the Greek pantheon? This book explores the figure of Athena, including her origins, the stories told about her, the way she was worshiped and how she is remembered today. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Greek goddess like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures of Machu Picchu and other important people and places. *Explains the history of the site and the theories about its purpose and abandonment. *Describes the layout of Machu Picchu, its important structures, and the theories about the buildings' uses. In 1911, American historian Hiram Bingham publicized the finding of what at the time was considered a "lost city" of the Inca. Though local inhabitants had known about it for century, Bingham documented and photographed the ruins of a 15th century settlement nestled along a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, placed so perfectly from a defensive standpoint that it's believed the Spanish never conquered it and may have never known about it. Today, of course, Machu Picchu is one of South America's best tourist spots, and the ruins have even been voted one of the Seven New Wonders of the World. But even though Machu Picchu is now the best known of all Incan ruins, its function in Incan civilization is still not clear. Some have speculated that it was an outpost or a frontier citadel, while others believe it to be a sanctuary or a work center for women. Still others suggest that it was a ceremonial center or perhaps even the last refuge of the Incas after the Spanish conquest. One of the most theories to take hold is that Machu Picchu was the summer dwelling of the Inca's royal court, the Inca's version of Versailles. As was the case with the renaming of Mayan and Aztec ruins, the names given to various structures by archaeologists are purely imaginary and thus not very helpful; for example, the mausoleum, palace or watchtower at Machu Picchu may have been nothing of the sort. What is clear at Machu Picchu is that the urban plan and the building techniques employed followed those at other Incan settlements, particularly the capital of Cuzco. The location of plazas and the clever use of the irregularities of the land, along with the highly developed aesthetic involved in masonry work, followed the model of the Inca capital. At Machu Picchu, the typical Incan technique of meticulously assembling ashlar masonry and creating walls of blocks without a binding material is astounding. The blocks are sometimes evenly squared and sometimes are of varying shape. In the latter case, the very tight connection between the blocks of stone seems quite remarkable. Even more astounding than the precise stone cutting of the Incas is the method that they used for the transportation and movement on site of these enormous blocks. The Incas did not have the wheel, so all the work was accomplished using rollers and levers. Machu Picchu: The History and Mystery of the Incan City comprehensively covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation surrounding the purpose of Machu Picchu and the debate over the buildings. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about Machu Picchu like you never have before, in no time at all.

Um homem caolho, com uma capa cinza e um chapéu de abas largas apoiando-se em uma bengala. Um andarilho que aparece quando menos esperado, trazendo triunfo ou perdição. O deus da profecia, poesia e destino. Um metamorfo. Um feiticeiro. O deus Odin representa uma figura dramática na mitologia nórdica e permanece uma parte da imaginação popular. Ele é a inspiração para personagens como Gandalf o Cinza de J.R.R. Tolkien, e ainda faz parte de literatura moderna tão variada quanto histórias em quadrinhos da Marvel bem como o romance de Neil Gaiman Deuses Americanos. Ao lado de seu filho Thor, Odin é um dos deuses nórdicos mais bem conhecidos, e é bem fácil esquecer-se que outrora ele esteve no centro de um panteão devotamente adorado por milhões de europeus durante a Idade Média. Odin possui numerosos nomes e títulos (mais de 200 de acordo com uma fonte), mas seu título mais conhecido é o "Pai de Tudo", o co-criador da Terra ("Midgard"), da humanidade e todas as criaturas que habitam esse mundo. Importante notar que ele também é o deus da profecia, êxtase, e poesia, papéis todos profundamente conectados no mundo nórdico, tendo em vista que a linha separando o poeta do profeta era tênue e eles eram tidos como possuindo uma inspiração por uma espécie de fúria extática. Esses papéis eram conectados pelo fato de Odin patrocinar o conhecimento, especialmente o conhecimento místico, já que ele era o descobridor de runas mágicas e músicas que então passou para a humanidade. Isso não foi obtido sem sacrifício - ele teve de arrancar um de seus próprios olhos e permanecer morto por nove dias com fim de adquiri-los. Odin era um deus da vida e também da morte, e famoso por tomar as almas de guerreiros que morriam em combate de volta ao seu reino de Valhalla. Seu papel estava ligado à sua posição como um deus da guerra, uma posição que talvez não pareça evidente a um leitor moderno para um deus do conhecimento e sabedoria. Entretanto, Odin era o rei dos deuses e o mestre de Asgard; portanto, no entendimento nórdico, uma de suas tarefas cruciais era a defesa daquele reino através de poderio militar quando necessário. Seus seguidores vivos iriam invocá-lo durante batalhas, e dizia-se que ele levou campeões e até mesmo exércitos de humanos ao triunfo. É útil comparar Odin a duas outras divindades proeminentes: Thor e Zeus. Thor, o filho de Odin, era um outro deus da guerra nórdico, e Zeus era um outro deus rei. E ainda em ambos os casos, Odin difere grandemente destes deuses. Ele era mais enigmático, e seu poderio era mais indireto e sutil. Odin era um deus de mistérios, de descobrir conhecimento obscuro, e ainda que fosse poderoso em batalha, as histórias onde ele tem maior destaque são aquelas onde ele assume formas discretas e faz com que os outros lhe passem informações que talvez não divulgassem tão abertamente. Isso difere da natureza temperamental dos outros dois deuses e de seu orgulho. Odin sempre foi um deus que planejava muitos passos adiante, disposto a fazer sacrifícios de curto-prazo extremos para progredir com seus planos, e continuamente trabalhava para endireitar a natureza de seu destino. Este livro explora a figura de Odin, incluindo suas origens, as histórias contadas sobre ele, o modo como era adorado e fragmentos e memórias dele que sobreviveram até a era moderna. Junto de ilustrações e uma bibliografia, você aprenderá a respeito de Odin como nunca antes, e sem perder tempo.

*Includes pictures. *Includes footnotes for further reading. Many ancient civilizations have influenced and inspired people in the 21st century, like the Greeks and the Romans, but of all the world's civilizations, none have intrigued people more than the Mayans, whose culture, astronomy, language, and mysterious disappearance all continue to captivate people. At the heart of the fascination is Chichén Itzá, the most visited Mayan site, but Chichén Itzá's prominence lasted for less than 200 years and was eventually succeeded by Mayapán, which lasted as the capital of the Maya for nearly 225 years until the middle of the 15th century. The Mayans are still remembered and celebrated for their culture and their contributions to astronomy, language, and sports, and many of their advancements came with Mayapán as their capital. Early Mayapán was closely connected to the overshadowing power of the region at the time: the mighty trading city of Chichén Itzá. Mayapán emerged first as a minor settlement in the orbit of Chichén, but it slowly came to replace it after the larger city's trade connections with the Toltecs of Tula crumbled and it suffered a staggering defeat by Mayapán's armies. The building styles and art in their city show both admiring references to the great Chichén Itzá as well as an attempt to position Mayapán as a more orthodox heir of Maya tradition. At the same time, they emulated many features and could not escape the tremendous influences - especially in religion - of Chichén. This is seen in the fact that many of the most important buildings in the new city appear to be small-scale reproductions of ones in Chichén. Due in part to the fact that it has long been overshadowed by Chichén Itzá, a lot excavation and scholarly research on the site has only come about in recent decades, and even though there is still plenty of work to do, a lot of information about life in Mayapán has been unearthed. At its height, Mayapán may have boasted a population of over 15,000, and archaeologists have had their hands full trying to discover and restore the several thousand buildings both inside Mayapán's walls and outside them as well. Mayapán: The History of the Mayan Capital covers the history of the city, as well as the speculation and debate over the city's buildings. Along with pictures and a bibliography, you will learn about the Mayan capital like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Traces the history of the area from before Medina to the current day *Includes footnotes and a bibliography for further reading *Includes a table of contents "Whenever the Prophet...returned from a journey and observed the walls of Madinah, he would make his Mount go fast, and if he was on an animal (i.e. a horse), he would make it gallop because of his love for Madinah." - Sahih Bukhari - Book 30: Hadith 110 The reason for the existence of most of the world's cities is obvious to geography students. New York and Shanghai control deep ports and straddle great rivers bringing trade from the interior; Paris and London are at the crossing points of major cross-country rivers; Johannesburg sits atop a great mountain of gold ore; and Moscow and Madrid are at the heart of their great nations, easily able to control even the more distant corners of the land. Medina, however, is starkly different. Even centuries before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, Jews settled on the land to escape persecution at the hands of the Babylonians and Romans, meaning the area and its arid environment brought inhabitants precisely because it wasn't an attractive or resource rich area. In fact, the city fated to become the second holiest city in Islam earned that spot simply by straddling trade routes to the religious city of Mecca, which brought traders and pilgrims in large enough numbers to make it a trade center. Of course, Mecca is now best known for being Islam's holiest city, and it is revered as the birthplace of Muhammad and the site where Allah first revealed the Qu'ran to him. However, the Prophet spent a great deal of time in Medina, especially when he and his supporters found themselves in conflict with the Meccans. Using Medina as a base, Muhammad eventually took Mecca, and both cities became integral parts of the Caliphate that followed. This meant that even as history brought geopolitical changes, Medina remained a city of religious significance for all Muslims, and even though its turbulent history is often overlooked, many people are still quite familiar with the city. Medina: The History of Islam's Second Holiest City traces the history of the most important site in Islam. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Medina like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures of important places and historic illustrations and art depicting the figures of the Arthurian legend *Profiles the historic figures who scholars speculate may be the person King Arthur was based on. *Explains the mythological and folklore origins of the Arthurian legend, and how the legend evolved over time. King Arthur is one of the most famous names in history, and his name still evokes visions of fantasy, chivalry, bravery, and more even today. Arthur remains a pop culture fixture around the globe, made famous in various Arthurian tales written by writers like Chretien de Troyes. Arthur came to embody the ideals of the Middle Ages: strength, chivalry, bravery, and more. Along the way, his Excalibur sword, the Holy Grail, his queen, and more have all become household words. Arthur has long been identified as a folk hero, and there are countless tales that comprise the Arthurian legend, but was there an actual person that the original stories were based on? People still search for the seeds of truth in the Knights of the Round Table, and the historical figure that inspired the Arthurian tales. Of course, as with all great myths, and even those with a kernel of truth behind them, there is no "real" Arthur. Arthur is now comprised of the works written by diverse storytellers, most of which have built upon the ancient stories and possibly history. It is from there that a primordial seed of myth remains at the heart of all the retellings. At the same time, Arthur's story is one of transformation, as he is brought from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance and more modern times. And that story also includes the famous contemporaries in his stories and other important historical figures, like Geoffrey of Monmouth, the imprisoned Sir Thomas Mallory and Walt Disney. When looking for the historical and mythical Arthur, scholars try to understand how the Arthur of these tales and of others like Disney's Sword in the Stone and Monty Python and the Holy Grail came to be. What are the origins of the Arthur legend and what can they tell people about the past? What is the historical basis for King Arthur, if any? King Arthur: The History and Folklore of the Arthurian Legend comprehensively examines the history and stories of the Arthurian legend, while also looking at how they affected English history and became as popular as they are today. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about King Arthur like you never have before, in no time at all.

This edited volume brings together ten compelling ethnographic case studies from a range of global settings to explore how people build metalinguistic communities defined not by use of a language, but primarily by language ideologies and symbolic practices about the language.  The authors examine themes of agency, belonging, negotiating hegemony, and combating cultural erasure and genocide in cultivating meaningful metalinguistic communities. Case studies include Spanish and Hebrew in the USA, Kurdish in Japan, Pataxo Hahahae in Brazil, and Gallo in France. The afterword, by Wesley L. Leonard, provides theoretical and on-the-ground context as well as a forward-looking focus on metalinguistic futurities. This book will be of interest to interdisciplinary students and scholars in applied linguistics, linguistic anthropology and migration studies.