Medicinsk mikrobiologi og virologi

Medical microbiology refers to a sub discipline of microbiology which is applied in biology. The major aim of medical microbiology is the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of infectious diseases, which can be caused by microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, parasites and fungi. It is also focused on the study of different clinical applications of microbes for improving the health. Epidemiology is a significant aspect of medical microbiology, which investigates the causes, effect and patterns of health and disease. However, the clinical aspect is concerned with the microbial infections affecting the humans, and various methods for the treatment of infectious diseases. A detailed diagnosis of infectious disease comprises various techniques, such as genotyping, microbial culture, biochemical tests and microscopy. This book explores all the important aspects of medical microbiology in the present day scenario. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of pathogenesis, immunity and control of microbial infections. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Mycology refers to the branch of biology, which is related with the study of fungi along with their taxonomy, human uses, and biochemical and genetic properties. It seeks to find the uses of fungi for various purposes including food, tinder, entheogens and traditional medicine, along with the risks associated with them like infection or toxicity. Fungi play crucial roles for life on Earth as symbionts, in the form of lichens, mycorrhizae and insect symbionts. Various fungi can break down complicated organic biomolecules like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lignin, petroleum and pollutants like xenobiotics. Fungi play an important role in the global carbon cycle through the decomposition of these molecules. The field of medical mycology has become significant in the current time, where the incidence of invasive fungal infections is on rise, which poses therapeutic and diagnostic challenges in the modern medical practice. The book studies, analyses and upholds the pillars of medical mycology and its utmost significance in modern times. It will unravel the recent studies in this field. Researchers and students engaged in medical mycology will be assisted by this book.

Microbiology refers to the scientific study of microorganisms, such as viruses, fungi and bacteria. One of the subsets of microbiology is medical microbiology, which is focused on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of various infectious diseases. It studies microbes for finding out their clinical applications to improve human health. Immunology is a branch of biology and medicine, which includes the study of immune systems in every organism. Protozoa, bacteria and viruses cause various diseases, such as tuberculosis, leishmaniasis, malaria and dengue fever. Medical microbiology and immunology are interlinked, as the microbes which cause disease, trigger an immune reaction and control the immune system during the infection. An integrated approach of medical microbiology and immunology is focused on understanding the response of the immune system towards the infection in the host organisms. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to medical microbiology and immunology. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes develop mechanisms to defend themselves from the impact of antimicrobials. Infections occurring due to resistant microbes are not easy to treat as they require high doses of antimicrobial drugs or other alternative medicines which are more toxic. The microbes resistant to various antimicrobials are referred to as multidrug resistant (MDR). Every class of microbes may evolve resistance, which may develop naturally through genetic mutation or through acquisition of resistance from one to another. Antimicrobial resistance is majorly caused by the excessive use of antimicrobials, which supports the mutations and results in making the antimicrobials ineffective. The control of antimicrobial resistance requires intelligent combination of approaches for various complimentary therapies. These combination therapies should extend beyond biologically active molecules for controlled delivery of strategies. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to antimicrobial resistance. It includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights to the readers on the mechanisms and therapeutic approaches to combat antimicrobial resistance.

Immunology is a sub field of biology and medicine which studies the immune system. Parasites are the organisms which reside in or on their host and obtain food by harming their hosts. Parasitology, refers to the study of parasites and their hosts, along with the interactions that take place between them. Immunoparasitology is the combination of immunology and parasitology, which studies the immunological interactions that take place between the parasite and the host, along with the immune responses generated by hosts to fight against parasitic infections. One of the primary motivations for investigating parasite resistance is the requirement to comprehend, reduce and eradicate the harm caused by parasites. The host responses to parasites are more than just passive reactions after infection. Different host immune responses indicate different defense methods used by the host for creating protective immunity. Parasites have developed several ways to evade host immune surveillance, such as molecular mimicry and decoys that helps in parasite's survival. This book contains some path-breaking studies in immunology and parasitology. It covers in detail some existent theories and innovative concepts revolving around this domain. This book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the disciplines.

Fungi are the main elements in global biogeochemical cycles. They play a significant role in biomedical research and manufacturing industries, and impact humans through their influence on biodiversity, global health and agriculture. Pathogenic fungi cause disease in human beings or other organisms. Majority of the fungi do not have pathogenic traits, but certain species result in infections which range from posturing to life threating. The fungi that are pathogenic to humans, are studied within the discipline of medical mycology. Several pathogenic fungi are microorganisms despite the fact that they are eukaryotic. There are various types of pathogenic fungi including Cryptococcus, Stachybotrys, Candida, Histoplasma, Aspergillus and Pneumocystis. Cryptococcus neoformans can result in a severe form of meningitis and meningo-encephalitis in AIDS infected patients. Stachybotrys can cause severe headaches and respiratory issues. Fungal infection usually occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, skin, genital-urinary tract and respiratory tract. This book provides comprehensive insights on human fungal pathogens. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

Pathogenic protozoa consist of various eukaryotic microorganisms which cause a number of parasitic diseases. Some of these diseases have clinical significance as they affect humans and include diseases like trichomoniasis, malaria, giardiasis, toxoplasmosis, amebiasis, leishmaniasis and Chagas disease. A prominent example of pathogenic protozoa are free living amoebae (FLA). They comprise opportunistic parasitic protozoa causing infections in humans as well as animals. FLA cause infections like amoebic encephalitis and Acanthamoeba keratitis. Protozoan pathogens can be identified in clinical samples by identifying the causative agent or by identifying particular immune reactions in the host. The diagnosis of the parasitic diseases caused by the protozoan pathogens is majorly dependent on microscopy. However, other methods such as techniques based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have also gained significance. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of protozoan pathogens and the recent researches on them. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information on these pathogens as well as for experts.

Phage therapy refers to the therapeutic usage of bacteriophages to treat and manage pathogenic bacterial infections. Bacteriophages are a type of virus, which attaches to the bacterial cells and injects their genome in the cells. The viral genome replaces the bacterial genome and stops the bacterial infection from spreading. The bacterial cell responsible for causing the infection is not able to reproduce and new phages are generated as a result. Phages are selective towards those bacterial strains against which they are effective. They are commonly bacterium-specific, which makes it important to get a swab and culture it before initiating a treatment. Phages can also be applied topically or orally on the infected wounds, can be spread on the surface or can be utilized while surgical procedures are underway. This book provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of phage therapy. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Bacteriophages or phages are the viruses that infect bacterial cells. They replicate within these bacteria. Bacteriophages can be categorized on the basis of their morphological characteristics, nucleic acid content, site where they are usually found, and the bacterial target. Phage therapy is a specialized application of bacteriophages used for treatments wherein bacterial infections are treated using bacteriophages. The genomes of bacteriophage are used to encode highly pathogenic bacterial toxins including cholera toxin in Vibrio cholerae and diphtheria toxin in Corynebacterium diphtheria. Despite its benefits, there are some risks associated with phage therapy. For instance, it may lead to development of antibiotic resistance and reduced activity due to immune system response. This book contains some path-breaking studies on bacteriophage biology. The various advancements in bacteriophage research have been glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications have been analyzed in detail. The book will serve as a valuable source of reference for the graduate and postgraduate students.

Foamy viruses, also known as spumaviruses, are complex retroviruses which make up a subfamily of Retroviridae family. This class of viruses can naturally infect a variety of animals including non-human primates (NHPs). Spumaretroviruses are unique and unconventional with respect to many aspects of molecular biology such as assembly and release of enveloped viral particles. There are three major proteins that are encoded within the retroviral genome, namely, group antigens (Gag), envelope protein (Env), and reverse transcriptase (Pol). Both Gag and Env as components of the minimal assembly and the release machinery display substantial variations in their molecular structures and functions compared to other retroviruses. Some of the distinct features of spumaretroviruses, which are not found in other retroviruses, are genome coding strategy, sequence features, mode and timing of Gag polyprotein processing, and packaging and activation of the Pol gene-associated enzymatic functions. This book provides a comprehensive overview of all aspects of the microbiology and immunology of foamy viruses. Researchers and students in the field of medical microbiology will be greatly assisted by it.

Herpesvirus refers to a type of virus that belongs to the herpesviridae family. It has been classified into eight different types which include herpes simplex type I (HSV-1), herpes simplex type II (HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV/HHV-3), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV/HHV-4), cytomegalovirus (CMV/HHV-5), herpesvirus type 6 (HBLV/HHV-6), herpesvirus type 7 (HHV-7) and Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8). Both direct and serologic techniques are used to diagnose the human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) infection. One of the most prominent techniques used for quantifying viral DNA in blood, organs and other body fluids is real-time PCR. There is currently no officially approved treatment for herpes infections. However, supportive therapy including sufficient hydration and acetaminophen for fever is recommended in all patients with symptomatic HHV-6 infection. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the diagnosis and management of human herpesviruses. It will help new researchers by foregrounding their knowledge about this virus. The book will provide comprehensive knowledge to medical students and professionals.

Antibiotics are medicines that are used to fight bacterial infections, and are used for the treatment and prevention of infections caused by bacteria. They can be derived from various sources such as bacteria, fungi and plant extracts. Two of such bacteria are Actinobacteria and Myxobacteria. They are primarily found in the soil. Actinobacteria are a group of gram-positive bacteria, which play critical roles in humus production and decomposition. Myxobacteria are gram-negative bacteria, which live primarily in soil and feed on insoluble organic matter. These bacteria generate a variety of biomedically and industrially useful chemicals including antibiotics, which they export outside the cell. They also generate gephyronic acid, which is an inhibitor of eukaryotic protein synthesis and a potential cancer chemotherapeutic drug. Myxobacteria are also useful models for studying multicellularity in bacterial environment. This book contains some path-breaking studies related to the role of actinobacteria and myxobacteria in the production of antibiotics. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Antiviral drugs, also called antiviral agents, are a group of substances that destroy viruses or inhibit their replication. This class of medications is used for the treatment or control of viral infections. The main targets of antiviral agents are specific events in the virus replication cycle. The target stages in the viral life cycle are based on the type of virus but they all follow the same pattern. These stages are viral attachment to host cell, uncoating, synthesis of viral mRNA, translation of mRNA, replication of viral RNA and DNA, maturation of new viral proteins, budding, release of newly synthesized virus, and free virus in body fluids. Toxicity and the development of resistance to the antiviral agent by the virus are two important factors that can limit the utility of antiviral drugs. This book contains a detailed account of antiviral drugs, their discovery and clinical trials. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global advancements in the field of antiviral drug development.

The human T-lymphotropic virus, also known as HTLV, refers to a group of human retroviruses which are recognized for causing a type of cancer known as adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma, and a demyelinating disease called HTLV-1 linked myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. The HTLVs are a part of larger group of primate T-lymphotropic viruses. The members of this family which infect human beings are known as HTLVs and those who infect old world monkeys are known as Simian T-lymphotropic viruses (STLVs). There are four types of HTLVs that have been found, namely, HTLV-1, HTLV-2, HTLV-3, and HTLV-4. HTLV-1 is clinically significant and it is transmitted sexually, through blood transfusion, sharing needles in drug use and breast feeding. The virus illustrates low antigenic variability and natural immunity is possible in humans. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to human T-lymphotropic viruses. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this area of study.

Salmonella infection, also called salmonellosis is a common bacterial disease that causes gastrointestinal illness and fever. It is caused by salmonella bacteria. Some common signs and symptoms of salmonella infection are diarrhea, fever, vomiting, nausea, headache and abdominal cramps. Contaminated food and water, improperly handled food, infected surfaces, infected pets or other infected animals can cause salmonellosis. There are several complications associated with salmonella infection such as dehydration, bacteremia, and reactive arthritis. The transfer of salmonella bacteria can be prevented by adopting certain lifestyle changes such as washing hands regularly, cooking and storing food properly, and avoiding consumption of raw eggs. The presence of salmonella bacteria can be diagnosed through a stool sample test and blood test. Treatment of dehydration caused by salmonella infection is based on replacing lost fluids and electrolytes by minerals that balance the amount of water in the body. Medications such as anti-diarrheals and antibiotics are also used to relieve the symptoms of infection. This book outlines the molecular and clinical aspects of salmonella infection in detail. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to medical students and researchers.

Viral replication refers to the creation of biological viruses in the target host cells during an infection. Viruses should first enter the cell before viral replication could take place. The virus continuously infects new hosts by producing numerous copies of its genome and packaging these copies. The replication of viruses varies significantly and is determined by the type of genes involved. Majority of DNA viruses accumulate in the nucleus whereas majority of RNA viruses grow only in the cytoplasm. Viruses can only replicate in living cells. The host cell must supply the synthetic machinery, energy and low-molecular-weight precursors, which are required for the synthesis of nucleic acids and viral proteins. The nucleic acid polymerases are behind the replication of genome of viruses and they are also involved in producing genetic variety, which is necessary for evading the host's defenses. Polymerases and other replication machinery components could be used as anti-viral targets. This book explores all the important aspects of viral replication in the present day scenario. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

A biofilm includes any syntrophic consortium of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other as well as to a surface. The microorganisms in a biofilm can demonstrate notable organization and can collaborate, communicate, and coordinate with one another. Biofilms can form on various surfaces in natural, industrial and hospital environments. The biofilms challenge the theory that bacteria are single-celled organisms, or which act in isolation instead of working together as a group of cooperating cells to improve their own fitness and the biofilm's efficiency. The biofilm bacteria may share nutrients and are protected from the damaging effects of environmental factors such as antibiotics, desiccation, and the immune system of the host body. A biofilm is generally formed as soon as a free-swimming bacterium attaches to a surface. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about biofilm science and technology. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

A phage or bacteriophage is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea. The diversity and abundance of phages in the biosphere makes them prime model organisms for studying the principles of evolution and ecology. Some major areas of research related to phages include the study of phages as promoters of bacterial evolution, novel therapeutic agents, and sources of genetic and diagnostic tools. There are various biotechnological applications of phages and phage-derived proteins in industries such as health, food science and safety, and agriculture. A major therapeutic application of phage is phage therapy, which is seen as a potential therapy for treating pathogenic bacterial infections. In the food industry, phages are extensively used for securing food products and preventing food spoilage caused by bacteria. This book outlines the applications of bacteriophages in the field of biotechnology. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

Veterinary microbiology refers to a field of study that is primarily focused on the microbes that cause diseases in animals. It studies the microbial diseases of domesticated animals used for food production and other useful purposes. It also addresses the microbial diseases of wild animals in relation to their interactions with domesticated animals. Microorganisms that can cause diseases include protozoa, bacteria, fungi, viruses along with a few different kinds of worms. Some of the common diseases caused by microorganisms include rabies, cholera, histoplasmosis, and malaria. Different kinds of antibiotics such as beta-lactams, macrolides, fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides can be used to treat bacterial diseases in animals. This book contains some path-breaking studies in veterinary microbiology. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information on the microbial diseases studied within this field. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

Viruses are microscopic and infectious microorganisms that are made up of genetic material enclosed in a protein coating. They cause a variety of serious infectious diseases including influenza, hepatitis, common cold, rabies, AIDS, smallpox, dengue fever and measles. Viruses are classified into four types based on the host cell that they infect, and these include plant viruses, bacteriophages, animal viruses and fungal viruses. Virology is the scientific study of viruses and virus-like agents. The study of viral infections and outbreaks using methods of bioinformatics has become essential to virology research. These methods have been used effectively to diagnose, treat and prevent infections in both animals and humans. Bioinformatics investigations that can be performed on viruses include motif and epitope recognition, homology searching, identification of open reading frames, sequence alignment, and gene prediction. This book provides new insights into virus bioinformatics. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

A bacteriophage is a virus that can infect and replicate only inside a bacteria. They can kill bacteria without any negative effect on human or animal cells. They are referred to as phages and are the most common biological entities found on Earth. Bacteriophages vary in size, morphology, and genomic organization. Many phage-based technologies and therapies have been developed, especially in antibacterial treatments. There are several potential advantages of bacteriophages over antibiotics in terms of treating bacterial infections. Some of the benefits of bacteriophages are specificity of action (i.e., they kill only the pathogen they recognize), a considerable spectrum of activity, higher tolerability, and ease of administration. The results of various in-vitro studies have shown that bacteriophages could also be effective in the treatment of cystic fibrosis (CF) disorder. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the study of bacteriophages. It traces the recent developments in bacteriophage biology, technology and therapy. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, this book targets medical students and professionals.

The viruses which have DNA as their genetic material and replicate using a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase are known as DNA viruses. The DNA viruses which cause cancers among humans are known as DNA tumor viruses. These include the hepatitis B virus, Kaposi sarcoma herpes virus, human papillomavirus, Merkel cell polyomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus. DNA tumor viruses cause tumors in human beings and animals by transforming the infected host cells. These oncogenic viruses encode viral proteins that prevent cell death by deregulating the integrated framework of host cellular processes. These viruses typically impair two families of tumor suppressor proteins, namely, retinoblastoma proteins and tumor proteins p53. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of DNA tumor viruses. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers. Experts and students actively engaged in the research on these viruses will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Viruses are microorganisms that replicate only inside the living cells of an organism, such as animals, plants, and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea. Molecular virology refers to the study of viruses at the level of nucleic acids and proteins. The proliferation of one or more harmful viruses within the body of a host is called a viral infection. Molecular virology seeks to study cellular function and virus biology in order to develop techniques for inhibiting and treating viral infections. Protein-protein, protein-nucleic acid, and protein-lipid interactions control the structure of virus particles. There are several viruses that can introduce their DNA into the nucleus of the host cell. This book provides comprehensive insights into the clinical perspectives of molecular virology. The topics covered herein deal with the core subjects of this field. Researchers and students in the field of virology will be greatly assisted by this book.

Parasitology refers to the study of the biology of parasites and diseases caused by them. It is also concerned with their evolution, distribution, ecology, biochemistry, molecular biology and physiology along with the clinical aspects like host responses towards parasites. It studies various groups of parasites, including arthropods, protozoa and helminthes. Immunology involves the study of immune systems of the sapient species, animals, plants and humans. It has applications in various medical disciplines such as oncology, virology, parasitology and bacteriology. A parasite is a living organism that obtains its food from a host. The majority of parasites that reside inside and on the body of the host do not cause illness. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to parasitology and immunology. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in these fields.

Bacterial toxins operate as independent molecular devices, targeting particular cells in an organism. They punch holes in the cell membrane and modify their intracellular components. Many bacterial toxins are strong human poisons, such as diphtheria, botulinum, Shiga and tetanus toxins. The lethality of a majority of the bacterial exotoxins can be compared with the lethality of endotoxin, snake venom and strychnine. They are multifunctional and self-programmed for reaching their target cells and organs. Due to this reason, they are significant pharmacological tools that can be used to treat various diseases. Diagnosis of various diseases depends on the identification and detection of toxins. Vaccines are made from chemically detoxified bacterial toxins and certain properties of these toxins make them appropriate for therapeutic applications. Different pharmacological applications, evaluations, and advanced studies on bacterial toxins have been included in this book. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information on bacterial toxins and their pathogenesis.

Secretion refers to the movement of materials from one point to another. In bacterial species, secretion is the transport of effector molecules like toxins, enzymes or proteins from the cytoplasm to exterior of the bacterial cell. It is a crucial mechanism in bacterial functioning and operation for their survival and adaptability in their natural surroundings. Bacterial secretion systems are the protein complexes on the cell membranes of bacteria for secretion of substances. These protein secretion systems play the role of cellular devices utilized by pathogenic bacteria to secrete their virulence factors to attack the host cells. They may be categorized on the basis of their composition, activity and distinct structure. Usually, proteins may be secreted via two distinct processes. In one process, cytoplasm of the bacteria is translocated and delivered directly in the host from cell membrane. Whereas, in the second process, proteins are transported to the inner membrane, deposited on periplasm, and then transmitted to the host by the outer cell membrane. The topics included in this book on bacterial protein secretion systems are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, it targets medical students and professionals.

Bacterial physiology refers to a discipline concerning the life supporting processes and functions of the bacteria, which facilitate the growth and reproduction of the bacterial cells. Bacterial metabolism is a significant component of bacterial physiology, as it provides the means through which nutrients and energy is obtained by the bacteria for its survival and reproduction. Bacterial metabolism is focused on chemical diversity of dissimilation reactions and substrate oxidations, which create energy in the bacteria. Enzymatic reactions in bacterial cells are regulated by two models, which involve the regulation of enzyme activity and regulation of enzyme synthesis. The regulation of enzyme activity is involved in the modulation of biosynthetic pathways. The regulation of enzyme synthesis focuses on catabolite repression and enzyme induction, which control the degradative pathways. This book provides comprehensive insights into bacterial physiology and metabolism. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike.

Bacteria can be found in almost every ecological niche on the planet. While most of them are harmless to humans, some of them can cause diseases, these bacteria are known as pathogenic bacteria. They have evolved sophisticated multi-protein secretion systems to interact with their environment. The proteins secreted by pathogenic bacteria into the cells of their host are termed as bacterial effectors. The secretion systems play a significant role in bacterial competitiveness and the pathogenesis of a variety of clinically relevant opportunistic and professional human pathogens. A wide range of intracellular processes including phagocytosis, endocytic trafficking, secretory trafficking, secretory pathway, apoptosis, etc. are regulated by bacterial effectors. The topics included in this book on bacterial pathogens and their relationship with human diseases are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It consists of contributions made by international experts. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They can be found in nearly all places on Earth and are essential to the planet's ecosystems. The majority of bacteria in the body are harmless and even beneficial in certain cases, while a small number of species cause disease. Pathogenic bacteria are a group of disease causing bacteria. They are uniquely endowed and adapted with mechanisms for overcoming the body's natural defenses. They can also attack parts of the body where bacteria are not found often like the blood. There are many different mechanisms through which bacteria develop antimicrobial resistance, but the main cause of developing resistance is the abuse and overuse of antibiotics. The majority of pathogenic bacteria can be developed in cultures and are identified using Gram stain as well as other techniques. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to pathogenic bacteria. Students and professionals actively engaged in the study of resistance mechanisms of bacteria will find it full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) happens when microbes develop mechanisms that guard them against the outcomes of antimicrobials. The agents that kill or stop the growth of microorganisms are called antimicrobials. The classification of antimicrobials is based on their function. For instance, antibiotics are used against bacteria and antifungals are used against fungi. The main causes of rising antimicrobial resistance are the usage of antimicrobials in humans and other animals, and the dissemination of resistant strains between the two. The multifold rise in resistance has also been related to the pharmaceutical sector releasing insufficiently treated effluents in the environment, particularly in nations where bulk medicines are made. Antimicrobials boost selective pressure in microbial populations, leading to the death of vulnerable microorganisms. This results in a rise in the percentage of resistant bacteria that survive. Resistant bacteria usually have a growth advantage and proliferate faster than vulnerable bacteria, even at very low levels of antibiotics. Antimicrobial resistance is becoming more widespread, necessitating the development of alternate treatments. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed the study of antimicrobial resistance and aided its advancement. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field of study.