Historie: teori og metoder

"Uller Uprising" by H. Beam Piper is a riveting science fiction novel that unfolds against the backdrop of interstellar colonization and political intrigue. Set on the distant planet Uller, the story revolves around a human-dominated government attempting to assert control over the native Ullerans and exploit the planet's resources. Tensions escalate as the Ullerans resist the encroachment on their autonomy, leading to a complex and suspenseful narrative. Piper skillfully weaves themes of colonialism, rebellion, and cultural clashes, creating a thought-provoking and action-packed tale. With its rich world-building and exploration of political dynamics, "Uller Uprising" is a classic work of science fiction that continues to captivate readers interested in the complexities of human-alien interactions and the consequences of imperialistic ventures in distant galaxies.

"The Ways of the Planets" by Martha Evans Martin is an enlightening exploration of our solar system and the celestial ballet performed by its planetary inhabitants. In this educational work, Martin unravels the mysteries of planetary motion, explaining the intricate paths traced by each celestial body in our cosmic neighborhood. Through accessible language and insightful descriptions, the author guides readers on a journey through the unique characteristics and behaviors of the planets. From the swift orbits of inner planets to the majestic movements of outer giants, Martin's work provides a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationships shaping our solar system. "The Ways of the Planets" stands as an engaging resource for astronomy enthusiasts, students, and anyone eager to grasp the celestial choreography that unfolds in the vastness of space.

"The Variable Man" by Philip K. Dick is a classic science fiction short story that delves into themes of reality, technology, and the unpredictability of human behavior. In this thought-provoking narrative, Dick introduces readers to a future society where technological advancements include a process called "Warping," allowing individuals to foresee potential outcomes of various scenarios.The protagonist, a repairman named Joe Fernwright, becomes an unexpected variable in the system due to his unpredictable decisions. As he faces a critical decision that could impact the fate of a war between Earth and a distant planet, Fernwright's actions challenge the deterministic nature of the advanced technology surrounding him.Dick's "The Variable Man" is a captivating exploration of free will, the consequences of choices, and the inherent uncertainties within complex systems. With its blend of speculative elements and philosophical inquiries, this short story continues to resonate with fans of science fiction, showcasing Dick's unique narrative style and his ability to weave intricate tales that question the nature of reality.

"Time Crime" by H. Beam Piper is a gripping science fiction novella that combines elements of time travel and detective mystery. In this thrilling tale, government investigator Verkan Vall navigates a complex web of temporal anomalies and criminal activity across parallel worlds. Set against the backdrop of the Paratime police force, tasked with policing temporal dimensions, the story unfolds as Vall pursues a criminal mastermind who threatens to disrupt the fabric of the multiverse. Piper's narrative skillfully explores the implications of time manipulation and the challenges of maintaining order across divergent timelines. "Time Crime" is a compact yet intricately woven story that offers readers a fascinating blend of speculative fiction, detective work, and exploration of the consequences of temporal meddling. This novella remains a notable contribution to the science fiction genre, capturing the imagination of readers with its imaginative premise and well-crafted narrative.

The last few decades have seen the emergence of theoretical history as an academic discipline characterised by conferences, journals, and an international community of researchers. It is about a scientific search for patterns in history, using quantitative data and formal, often mathematical models to understand the past, interpret the present and shape the future. This book is a comprehensive survey of the new discipline's themes and participants, including its early roots. The first two chapters define the scope of theoretical history and present some background knowledge and assumptions. This is followed by a review of mathematical methods, covering topics like calculus, network theory, statistics, and time-series analysis. Three chapters cover respectively socio-cultural, economic-technological, and military-political processes in history. Cities and urbanism, historical cycles such as in war and the economy, and the impact of the environment on social change also each have their own chapter. The final chapter provides a guide to data sources. There is an index and bibliography.

"The Story of the Mind" by James Mark Baldwin is a captivating exploration into the complexities of the human mind and its evolution. Baldwin, a prominent psychologist and philosopher, takes readers on a journey through the intellectual history of psychological thought, from the early philosophical musings to the emerging scientific inquiries of his time. This insightful work delves into the development of cognitive processes, the interplay between nature and nurture, and the intricate mechanisms underlying human consciousness. With a blend of scholarly rigor and accessible prose, Baldwin presents a narrative that encompasses both the philosophical foundations and the empirical advancements in the study of the mind. "The Story of the Mind" serves as a timeless guide for those interested in the fascinating narrative of how humanity has sought to understand its own cognitive existence, making it an enriching read for students, scholars, and anyone curious about the intricacies of the human mind.

"The School Book of Forestry" by Charles Lathrop Pack is a comprehensive guide that educates readers on the principles and practices of forestry. With a focus on sustainability and conservation, Pack's work serves as an invaluable resource for students and enthusiasts interested in understanding the intricate balance between human activities and forest ecosystems. The book covers essential topics such as tree identification, forest management techniques, and the importance of preserving natural habitats. Pack's insightful exploration aims to instill a sense of responsibility and stewardship toward forests, emphasizing the role of forestry in maintaining ecological equilibrium. Packed with practical knowledge and environmental consciousness, "The School Book of Forestry" stands as a timeless reference for those seeking a deeper understanding of sustainable practices and the vital role forests play in our world.

"Astronomy for Young Folks" by Isabel Martin Lewi is an engaging celestial journey tailored for young minds eager to explore the wonders of the universe. Lewi, with a blend of accessible language and captivating illustrations, takes young readers on an astronomical adventure, unraveling the mysteries of stars, planets, and galaxies. The book serves as a celestial guide, introducing fundamental concepts in astronomy in an educational and entertaining manner. From the mechanics of our solar system to the fascinating phenomena occurring in the vast cosmos, Lewi's work sparks curiosity and lays the foundation for a lifelong fascination with space. "Astronomy for Young Folks" is a stellar resource for budding astronomers, providing a delightful blend of education and inspiration to cultivate a love for the cosmos in the hearts of young readers.

"Flower Guide: Wild Flowers East of the Rockies" by Chester A. Reed is a comprehensive and user-friendly guidebook for nature enthusiasts and botanists alike. Focused on the diverse array of wildflowers found east of the Rockies, Reed's guide meticulously catalogs and illustrates the region's flora, aiding readers in easy identification. The book's visually appealing format, coupled with Reed's detailed descriptions and informative insights, make it an invaluable resource for both beginners and experienced botanists. From vibrant blooms to subtle blossoms, the guide covers a wide spectrum of wildflowers, facilitating a deeper appreciation for the rich botanical tapestry of the Eastern United States. Whether you're a casual hiker or a seasoned naturalist, "Flower Guide" serves as a handy companion for exploring and understanding the captivating world of wildflowers in the eastern Rockies region.

"Exploitation of a Ship¿s Magnetic Field Signatures" by John Holmes is a groundbreaking exploration of naval technology and strategic warfare. Holmes delves into the intricate realm of magnetic field signatures emanating from ships, unraveling their implications for military operations and defense systems. The book meticulously examines how adversaries can exploit these magnetic signatures for tactical advantage or to devise countermeasures. Holmes, with authoritative expertise, offers insights into the implications for naval tactics, submarine warfare, and the development of magnetic signature mitigation technologies. This work stands as an indispensable guide for naval professionals, defense analysts, and technology enthusiasts, providing a thorough understanding of the nuanced interplay between magnetic fields and maritime security. As a seminal contribution to the field, Holmes' work navigates the complex waters of magnetic signature exploitation, making it a must-read for anyone seeking a deeper comprehension of naval strategy and modern defense mechanisms.

"A Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons" by Frederick Accum is a pioneering work that exposes the alarming practices of food adulteration in 19th-century society. Accum, a renowned chemist, meticulously investigates the deceptive and often hazardous substances added to food items for economic gain. Through detailed analyses and scientific scrutiny, the book unveils the extent of contamination in various food products, from spices to beverages. Accum's work serves as a rallying cry for food safety and public health, urging readers to be vigilant consumers. This seminal treatise not only contributed to legislative efforts to regulate food quality but also laid the groundwork for modern food safety standards. In an era where the purity of consumables was a growing concern, Accum's comprehensive examination of culinary adulterations remains a landmark text, offering valuable historical insights and emphasizing the importance of safeguarding the integrity of our food supply.

"Birds and Man" by W. H. Hudson is a captivating exploration of the profound and intricate relationships between humans and avian species. Hudson, with keen observation and literary finesse, delves into the cultural, historical, and symbolic connections between birds and humanity. From ancient folklore to contemporary interactions, the book weaves a rich tapestry of anecdotes and insights, revealing the multifaceted roles birds play in human societies. Hudson's narrative encompasses the symbolic significance of birds in art, literature, and religious symbolism, while also addressing the practical aspects of bird-human interactions, such as birdwatching and domestication. "Birds and Man" stands as a testament to Hudson's deep appreciation for the natural world and his ability to convey the enchantment of avian life to a diverse readership. This timeless work appeals to bird enthusiasts, naturalists, and those curious about the intricate bonds shared between humans and the winged creatures that populate our world.

"Coral Reefs" by Charles Darwin is a seminal work that unveils the mysteries of these vibrant underwater ecosystems. In this pioneering exploration, Darwin presents meticulous observations and profound insights into the formation and evolution of coral reefs. He investigates the intricate relationships between coral organisms, marine life, and the geological processes that shape these remarkable structures. Darwin's groundbreaking theories on the growth of coral reefs and the concept of subsidence have left an indelible mark on marine biology and geology. This book serves as a cornerstone in understanding the delicate balance and intricate beauty of coral ecosystems. With a compelling blend of scientific rigor and engaging prose, "Coral Reefs" remains a timeless resource for marine biologists, environmentalists, and anyone captivated by the wonders of the underwater world.

"Dynamite Stories and Some Interesting Facts about Explosives" by Hudson Maxim is an engaging and informative collection that delves into the fascinating world of explosives and their profound impact on history and technology. Maxim, a pioneering figure in the field of explosives, presents a captivating anthology of narratives and facts that span from the development of dynamite to its various applications. With a blend of storytelling and technical insight, Maxim explores explosive innovations, their roles in construction and demolition, and their historical significance in shaping industries and conflicts. This book not only appeals to enthusiasts of science and engineering but also captures the curiosity of a broader audience interested in the dynamic interplay between technology and society. "Dynamite Stories" is a riveting journey through the explosive landscape, offering readers a unique perspective on the powerful forces that have shaped the modern world.

"Basalmo, the Magician, or, The Memoirs of a Physician" by Alexander Dumas is a spellbinding tale of intrigue, magic, and mystery set in the backdrop of 18th-century France. Dumas weaves a captivating narrative following the enigmatic Basalmo, a charismatic magician and physician whose life unfolds through a series of enthralling memoirs. As the story unravels, readers are transported into a world where science and sorcery collide, as Basalmo navigates the complex webs of power, ambition, and forbidden knowledge. Amidst political upheaval and societal intrigue, Basalmo's journey intertwines with historical events and iconic figures, offering a mesmerizing blend of fact and fiction. Dumas' masterful storytelling and vivid prose create a rich tapestry of characters and events, immersing readers in a world where the boundaries between reality and the supernatural blur. "Basalmo, the Magician" is a timeless classic that continues to enchant readers with its spellbinding narrative and unforgettable characters, making it a must-read for lovers of historical fiction and tales of magic and intrigue.

"Darwin, And After Darwin" by George John Romanes is a thought-provoking exploration that extends and reflects upon Charles Darwin's groundbreaking theories of evolution. In this intellectual journey, Romanes builds upon Darwin's ideas, delving into the implications for science, philosophy, and theology in the post-Darwinian era. Romanes scrutinizes the broader consequences of evolutionary thought, examining its impact on the understanding of human nature, morality, and the relationship between science and religion. With scholarly depth, he navigates the evolving landscape of evolutionary theory, offering a nuanced perspective on its reception and assimilation into various intellectual domains. This work stands as a testament to Romanes' intellectual prowess and serves as a valuable companion for those seeking a comprehensive exploration of the enduring legacy and ongoing discourse spurred by Darwinian evolution.

"Curious Creatures in Zoology" by John Ashton is an enthralling journey into the animal kingdom's quirks and marvels. Ashton, with a keen eye for the extraordinary, introduces readers to a menagerie of peculiar creatures that defy conventional expectations. Through captivating narratives and vivid descriptions, the book unveils the unique behaviors, adaptations, and anatomical peculiarities of various species. Ashton's storytelling prowess transforms zoological facts into a delightful tapestry of curiosities, catering to both casual readers and animal enthusiasts. From the bizarre to the astonishing, "Curious Creatures in Zoology" offers an engaging exploration of the diversity and wonders found in the natural world. This book is a captivating blend of scientific insight and storytelling, making it an ideal choice for anyone seeking an accessible and entertaining foray into the fascinating realm of zoology.

The lives of three generations of the plebeian Tempanius family are woven through the struggles and conflicts against Etruscan, Latin and other enemies of the young republic, and the fight for rights and power between the aristocratic Patricians and the common people of Rome in the first decades of the Roman Republic. Lucius Tempanius, eldest son of Marcus and Drusilla, loves war and pleasure. His goal in life is to be the greatest soldier of Rome and abjures his role as head of the family and leaves the farm to his brother, Titus. His move into the city causes a deep rift in the family and brings dishonor to the Tempanius name. But when his youngest brother is murdered by a patrician and allowed to escape punishment, Lucius Tempanius finally dedicates himself to a cause. That cause is vendetta; vengeance for his brother, and breaking the power of the patricians.

Professor Stokes, the great Irish clinician of the nineteenth century, to whom we owe so much of our knowledge of the diseases of the heart and lungs, and whose name is enshrined in terms commonly used in medicine in connection with these diseases, has told a striking story of his experiences in a Dublin hospital that illustrates this very well. An old Irishman, who had been a soldier in his younger years and had been wounded many times, was in the hospital ill and manifestly dying. Professor Stokes, after a careful investigation of his condition, declared that he could not live a week, though at the end of that time the old soldier was still hanging on to life, ever visibly sinking. Stokes assured the students who were making the rounds of his wards with him that the old man had at most a day or two more to live, and yet at the end of some days he was still there to greet them on their morning visits. After the way of medical students the world over, though without any of that hard-heartedness that would be supposed ordinarily to go with such a procedure, for they were interested in the case as a medical problem, the students began to bet how long the old man would live.

The growth of intelligence in the human race has its counterpart in that of the individual, especially in the earliest stages. Intellectual activity and the development of reasoning powers are in both cases based upon the accumulation of experiences, and on the comparison, classification, arrangement, and nomenclature of these experiences. During the infancy of each the succession of events can be watched, but there can be no à priorianticipations. Experience alone, in both cases, leads to the idea of cause and effect as a principle that seems to dominate our present universe, as a rule for predicting the course of events, and as a guide to the choice of a course of action. This idea of cause and effect is the most potent factor in developing the history of the human race, as of the individual. In no realm of nature is the principle of cause and effect more conspicuous than in astronomy; and we fall into the habit of thinking of its laws as not only being unchangeable in our universe, but necessary to the conception of any universe that might have been substituted in its place. The first inhabitants of the world were compelled to accommodate their acts to the daily and annual alternations of light and darkness and of heat and cold, as much as to the irregular changes of weather, attacks of disease, and the fortune of war. They soon came to regard the influence of the sun, in connection with light and heat, as a cause. This led to a search for other signs in the heavens. If the appearance of a comet was sometimes noted simultaneously with the death of a great ruler, or an eclipse with a scourge of plague, these might well be looked upon as causes in the same sense that the veering or backing of the wind is regarded as a cause of fine or foul weather.

"Geological Observations on South America" by Charles Darwin is a groundbreaking exploration into the geological wonders of the South American continent. In this seminal work, Darwin meticulously documents his observations and findings during his voyage on HMS Beagle. From the Andes' towering peaks to the intricacies of geological formations, Darwin's keen eye and scientific acumen provide a comprehensive study of South America's geological history. Through vivid descriptions and detailed analysis, Darwin unveils the earth's complex processes, contributing significantly to the understanding of geological evolution. This work not only showcases Darwin's pioneering contributions to earth science but also serves as an enduring resource for geologists and enthusiasts, offering a timeless exploration of the fascinating geological features that characterize South America.

When I had read Charles Darwin's book 'On the Origin of Species,' it seemed to me that there was one mode, and that perhaps the most certain, of testing the correctness of the views developed in it, namely, to attempt apply them as specially as possible to some particular group of animals. such an attempt to establish a genealogical tree, whether for the families of a class, the genera of a large family, or for the species of an extensive genus, and to produce pictures as complete and intelligible as possible of the common ancestors of the various smaller and larger circles, might furnish a result in three different ways. 1. In the first place, Darwin's suppositions when thus applied might lead to irreconcilable and contradictory conclusions, from which the erroneousness of the suppositions might be inferred. If Darwin's opinions are false, it was to be expected that contradictions would accompany their detailed application at every step, and that these, by their cumulative force, would entirely destroy the suppositions from which they proceeded, even though the deductions derived from each particular case might possess little of the unconditional nature of mathematical proof.

The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social or Group Psychology, which at a first glance may seem to be full of significance, loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined more closely. It is true that Individual Psychology is concerned with the individual man and explores the paths by which he seeks to find satisfaction for his instincts; but only rarely and under certain exceptional conditions is Individual Psychology in a position to disregard the relations of this individual to others. In the individual's mental life someone else is invariably involved, as a model, as an object, as a helper, as an opponent, and so from the very first Individual Psychology is at the same time Social Psychology as well¿in this extended but entirely justifiable sense of the words. The relations of an individual to his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the object of his love, and to his physician¿in fact all the relations which have hitherto been the chief subject of psycho-analytic research¿may claim to be considered as social phenomena; and in this respect they may be contrasted with certain other processes, described by us as 'narcissistic', in which the satisfaction of the instincts is partially or totally withdrawn from the influence of other people. The contrast between social and narcissistic¿Bleuler would perhaps call them 'autistic'¿mental acts therefore falls wholly within the domain of Individual Psychology, and is not well calculated to differentiate it from a Social or Group Psychology.

"Over fifty thousand people heard Elsie Lincoln Benedict at the City Auditorium during her six weeks lecture engagement in Milwaukee."¿Milwaukee Leader, April 2, 1921."Elsie Lincoln Benedict has a brilliant record. She is like a fresh breath of Colorado ozone. Her ideas are as stimulating as the health-giving breezes of the Rockies."¿New York Evening Mail, April 16, 1914."Several hundred people were turned away from the Masonic Temple last night where Elsie Lincoln Benedict, famous human analyst, spoke on 'How to Analyze People on Sight.' Asked how she could draw and hold a crowd of 3,000 for a lecture, she said: 'Because I talk on the one subject on earth in which every individual is most interested¿himself.'"¿Seattle Times, June 2, 1920."Elsie Lincoln Benedict is a woman who has studied deeply under genuine scientists and is demonstrating to thousands at the Auditorium each evening that she knows the connection between an individual's external characteristics and his inner traits."¿Minneapolis News, November 7, 1920."Elsie Lincoln Benedict is known nationally, having conducted lecture courses in many of the large Eastern cities. Her work is based upon the practical methods of modern science as worked out in the world's leading laboratories where exhaustive tests are applied to determine individual types, talents, vocational bents and possibilities."¿San Francisco Bulletin, January 25, 1919.

Every tissue is composed of two parts: the cellular elements and the intercellular substance. These are called cells and stroma. Upon the first of these depends the vitality and function of the part, while its density, shape and general physical properties are determined by the second. Likewise along the same lines of reason, all of our organs have two separate areas of tissue: theparenchymatous and the interstitial. The first contains the functioning and the second the supporting elements. The physical conditions of the interstitial tissue or the intercellular substance vary greatly in density. Blood is a tissue, the intercellular constituent of which is fluid, and as we consider more dense tissues, we encounter all degrees of density of the framework or intercellular substance, until with the additional presence of calcareous elements, we conceive the hardness of bone and dentine. Tissues as a whole, however, are not solid; there are spaces in the supporting structure to admit of the passage of arteries, veins, nerves, and lymphatics. Abnormal conditions arise in the various parts of the tissues. Certain diseases affect the parenchymatous tissue in an organ more than the interstitial tissue and again others affect the blood vessels particularly.

Pre-Darwinian Evolutionists¿Causes which led to the speedy triumph of the theory of Natural Selection¿Nature of the opposition which Darwin had to overcome¿Post-Darwinian biology¿Usually accepted classification of present-day biologists as Neo-Lamarckians and Neo-Darwinians is faulty¿Biologists fall into three classes rather than twöNeo-Lamarckism: its defects¿Wallaceism: its defects¿Neo-Darwinism distinguished from Neo-Lamarckism and Wallaceism¿Neo-Darwinism realises the strength and weakness of the theory of Natural Selection, recognises the complexity of the problems which biologists are endeavouring to solve. Darwinism and evolution are not interchangeable terms. On this fact it is impossible to lay too much emphasis. Charles Darwin was not the originator of the theory of evolution, nor even the first to advocate it in modern times. The idea that all existing things have been produced by natural causes from some primordial material is as old as Aristotle. It was lost sight of in the mental stagnation of the Middle Ages. In that dark period zoological science was completely submerged. It was not until men shook off the mental lethargy that had held them for many generations that serious attention was paid to biology. From the moment when men began to apply scientific methods to that branch of knowledge the idea of evolution found supporters.

In all the foregoing chapters we have been considering only the muscular engines of the human machine, counting them over and comparing their construction and their mechanism with those of the internal-combustion engine of a motor cycle. But of the levers or crankpins through which muscular engines exert their power we have said nothing hitherto. Nor shall we get any help by now spending time on the levers of a motor cycle. We have already confessed that they are arranged in a way which is quite different from that which we find in the human machine. In the motor cycle all the levers are of that complex kind which are called wheels, and the joints at which these levers work are also circular, for the joints of a motor cycle are the surfaces between the axle and the bushes, which have to be kept constantly oiled. No, we freely admit that the systems of levers in the human machine are quite unlike those of a motor cycle. They are more simple, and it is easy to find in our bodies examples of all the three orders of levers. The joints at which bony levers meet and move on each other are very different from those we find in motor cycles. Indeed, I must confess they are not nearly so simple. And, lastly, I must not forget to mention another difference. These levers we are going to study are living¿at least, are so densely inhabited by myriads of minute bone builders that we must speak of them as living. I want to lay emphasis on that fact because I did not insist enough on the living nature of muscular engines.